Parrillo Glossary of Terms

Acetyl-CoA – The metabolic intermediate that is produced when carbohydrate or fat undergoes beta-oxidation. It is then available to be used for energy production via the Krebs cycle or through the forma-tion of ketone bodies.

Acromegaly – Pathological enlargement of the bones of the hands, feet and face resulting from chronic over activity of the pituitary gland. Only results from disease of the pituitary or exogenous growth hormone usage.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – The final step of the Krebs Cycle. This molecule collects the potential energy from nutrients that is released during beta-oxidation and carries it to the cells of the body to be used for energy.

Adipose Tissue – Bodily connective tissue that con-tains stored cellular fat.

Adrenal Glands – Either of two small endocrine glands, one located above each kidney, consisting of the cortex, which secretes several different hor-mones, and the medulla, which secretes epinephrine.

Adrenal Medulla – The center of the adrenal gland that secretes the hormone epinephrine.Adrenaline – Another name for epinephrine.

Aerobic – Living or occurring only in the presence of oxygen.

Aerobics – Conditioning of the cardiopulmonary system by means of vigorous exercise that seeks to increase efficiency of oxygen intake, build the cardio-vascular system and increase metabolic activity.

Amino Acids – The essential components of protein. These are the building blocks of the all the cells in the body. There are about 20 different amino acids that occur in the human body.

Ammonia – The byproduct of amino acid usage by the muscles for energy. Very toxic, it is converted to urea by aspartates in the urea cycle, which can then be disposed of in urine.

Anabolic – The process by which simple substances are synthesized into the complex tissue of living tissue.

Anaerobic – Living or occurring without the presence of oxygen.

Androgens – A steroid hormone that develops and maintains masculine characteristics. They also are potent stimulators of linear growth in children whose epiphyses has not closed yet. They also promote muscle growth.

Anemia – A deficiency in the oxygen-carrying material of the blood, measured in volume concentrations of hemoglobin, red blood cell volume and red blood cell number.

Aspartates – Chemical compound that is used by the body to detoxify waste products created by amino acid catabolism.

Autocrine Hormones – Hormones that exert their ef-fect only on the cells that produce them.

Basal Metabolic Rate – The body’s energy expendi-ture while at rest. This represents the energy require-ments for maintaining life, consisting mostly of main-tenance of temperature, heart rate, breathing nerve transmission, electrochemical gradients across cell membranes and the energy cost of protein turnover required to maintain cells.

Beta-Oxidation – Fatty acid catabolism in which two carbon fragments are removed from the fatty acid chain, producing acetyl-CoA which can then travel through the Krebs cycle or be synthesized into ke-tones and used as energy.

Bile – An alkaline liquid secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which is sent to the intes-tines to be used to break down fat.

Body Fat – The amount of adipose tissue carried on the body.

Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) – The amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine, these are important for synthesis of other amino acids and can be used directly by the muscle for energy.

Calcium – A very important mineral used in the for-mation and maintenance of teeth and bones as well as other metabolic processes in the body.

Calorie – The unit of heat required to raise one gram of water from O degree (C) to 100 degrees (C). It is the unit of measurement used when calculating po-tential food energy.

CapTri – A medium chain fatty acid that contains 8.3 calories per gram. Used as a supplement to food, it can increase energy while not being stored as body fat.

Carbohydrate – Any of a group of chemical com-pounds, including sugars, starches and cellulose, containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbon – A natural element occurring in many inor-ganic and all organic compounds.

Cardiovascular Density – The size and number or blood vessels and capillaries capable of transporting oxygen to cells and removing waste from cells.

Carnitine Shuttle – A metabolic process in which long chain triglycerides are actively transported across the membrane of the mitochondria to be burned for energy.

Catabolic – Metabolic change of complex molecules into simple molecules.

Cellulose – A carbohydrate, is the main constituent of all plant tissues and fiber. Cannot by digested by the human body.

Cholesterol – A crystalline substance, the most com-mon animal sterol. Is a universal tissue constituent occurring most notably in bile, gallstones, the brain, blood cells, plasma, egg yolk and seeds. There are two types: high density lipoprotein and low density lipoprotein. High density lipoprotein is important for many physiological processes. Low density lipopro-tein has been show to build up in arteries causing blockages which can lead to heart disease.

Chondrocytes – Layers of cartilage which are the framework for bone formation.

Chylomicrons – A microscopic fat molecule in the blood that is formed during the digestion of fat.

Cortisol – One of the glucocorticoids, this hormone, derived from the adrenal cortex, acts to stimulate optimal levels of metabolic enzymes used during growth. Low cortisol prevents growth because en-zyme levels are too low, while excess cortisol causes protein catabolism.

Diabetes – A  disease caused by a severe deficiency of insulin production by the pancreas. Mild cases can be regulated through diet while others require insulin injection.

Digestion – The primarily enzymatic process of breaking down the food ingested into simple, assimi-lable substances.

Dual Effector Hypothesis – The explanation of how GH injection can cause localized growth.

Duodenum – The beginning portion of the small in-testine, extending from the lower end of the stomach to the jejunum.

Electrolytes – A substance that dissociates into ions in solution when fused, thereby becoming an electri-cal conductor. The body uses many different electro-lytes for physiological processes.Endochondrial

Ossification – The process in which proliferating cartilage is replaced by bone.

Endocrine Hormones – A classification of hormones, meaning that they are released into the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body. Also know as telecrine hormones.

Endocrine System – Consisting of several organs of the body, including the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and parathyroid glands, the pancreas, testes or ovaries and kidneys, this systems transports information to different parts of the body through chemical messag-es. These messages are called hormones.

Energy – The work a physical system is capable of doing in changing from its actual state to a specified reference state.

Energy Balance -The bodily process of using as much energy as it is provided through nutrition. This includes energy expenditure through basal metabo-lism, physical activity and thermogenesis.

Enzymes – Any of numerous proteins or conjugated proteins produced by living organisms and functioning as biochemical catalysts in living organisms.

Epinephrine – An adrenal hormone from the adrenal medulla that stimulates autonomic nerve action. Has been shown to have a great impact on fat loss. When activated, it is carried throughout the body, preparing muscles for action and mobilizing fat from adipose stores for energy. Also known as adrenaline.

Epiphyseal Plate – The ends of the bones that con-tinue to grow throughout childhood and adolescence. They usually close during puberty, at which point bone growth is stopped.

Erythrocytes – The blood cell that contains hemoglo-bin and is responsible for the color of blood.

Essential Amino Acids – Eight amino acids which are not capable of being produced by the body and must be obtained through dietary protein.

Essential Fatty Acids – A group of fatty acids which are physiologically important to good health.

Estrogen – One of several steroid hormones pro-duced chiefly by the ovary and responsible for the regulation of certain female reproductive functions and the development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics.

Fascial Stretching – A specialized form of stretching developed by John Parrillo in which the fascia tissue which envelopes the muscle is stretched, allowing for more muscle growth.

Fat – Any of various soft solid or semisolid organic compounds comprising fatty acids and associated phosphatides, sterols, alcohols, hydrocarbons, ke-tones and related compounds. A mixture of such compounds widely occurring in organic tissue, espe-cially in the subcutaneous connective tissue of ani-mals and in the seeds, nuts and fruits of plants.

Fatty Acids – Any of a large group of acids contain-ing hydrogen and carbon and is obtainable from  animals and plants. These acids combine to form fat.

Fiber – One of the elongated, thick-walled cells giving strength and support to plant tissue. An important part of the diet for regulation of digestion and elimination of digestive waste.

Food – Material, usually plant or animal, containing or consisting of essential nutrients, as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, or minerals, taken in and as-similated by an organism to maintain growth and life.

Food Efficiency – The calories consumed of a cer-tain amount of food divided by weight gain. Foods with a high food efficiency tend to add to weight gain while foods with a low food efficiency are more prone to be used as energy rather than stored as body weight.

Fructose – A sweet sugar that is found in many fruits and honey. Is prone to being stored as body fat.

Gall Bladder – A small, pear-shaped sac located un-der the right lobe of the liver, in which bile secreted by the liver is stored.

Gastrointestinal Tract – Of or relating to the stom-ach and intestines and process by which food travels through these organs.

Glucagon – A hormone secreted by the pancreas which increases blood sugar by activating the me-tabolism of fat from adipose tissue and amino acids from muscle. This hormone has the opposite reaction of insulin.

Glucocorticoids – A group of hormones responsible for stimulating or regulating optimal levels of enzymes whose activities are then regulated by other hor-mones.

Gluconeogenesis – Process in which amino acids are changed into glucose in the liver which can then be used as energy.

Glucose – The combination of simple sugars that is formed by the digestion of food and is released into the bloodstream to be used for energy, converted into muscle glycogen or stored as body fat. Glucose is the trigger mechanism for the release of insulin from the pancreas.

Glycogen – The primary storage carbohydrate in ani-mals. Glycogen can be stored in the muscles for im-mediate energy needs or can be stored in the liver.

Glycogen Supercompensation – A process of de-pleting glycogen stores in the muscle and liver by carbohydrate restriction, and then replenishing them past the storage limit they had before.

Glycogen Synthase – The enzyme responsible for glycogen storage.Glycolysis – The anaerobic production of ATP from carbohydrate. This is the primary energy source for intense exercise for short periods of duration..

Golgi Tendon Organ – A group of sensory receptors in the muscle that fire when the tendon is stretched too far and shuts down the muscle.

Golgi Tendon Reflex – The shutting down of the muscle by the golgi tendon organ during exercise.

Growth Hormone – Produced by the pituitary gland, this anabolic hormone is the most responsible for growth during childhood. It has profound effects on development of the skeleton and muscles. Even after physical stature is attained, growth hormone can still have a great effect on muscle growth.

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) – A hormone released by the hypothalamus which trig-gers growth hormone release.

Heme – The non-protein, ferrous-iron-containing com-ponent of hemoglobin.Hemoglobin – The oxygen-bearing, iron-containing protein in blood cells.

Hi-Protein – A high-quality supplement formulated with casein and lactalbumin, two of nature’s best pro-tein sources and maltodextrin, a slow-release carbo-hydrate. Hormone Receptors – Special molecules on cells that interpret the signal being sent by hormones.

Hormone Sensitive Lipase – An enzyme produced by epinephrine that breaks down fat triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. The free fatty acids can then leave the adipose tissue into the bloodstream and be used for energy by the muscles.

Hypercaloric – Increasing caloric consumption.Hyperphagia – Overeating.

Hypocaloric – Restricting caloric consumptionHypoglycemia – An abnormally low level of glucose in the blood. Can be caused by carbohydrate restric-tion or overly high insulin levels.

Hypophysectomy – Removal of the pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus – The part of the brain that lies below the thalamus and functions to regulate autonomic ac-tivities, like body temperature and weight. It connects the pituitary to the brain and is the link between the endocrine system and the nervous system.

Insulin – Powerful anabolic hormone released by the islands of Langerhans in the pancreas. Functions to regulate carbohydrate metabolism by controlling blood glucose levels. Also has a hand in storage of fat and in the entry of amino acids into muscles.

Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF) – An important peptide for the regulation of growth hormone. Pro-duced by the liver, it has an insulin-like effect on glu-cose.Iron – An important metallic element that is used by the cardiovascular system to bind iron to hemoglobin and myoglobin. It also is required by enzymes when oxygen is consumed in the cells.

Ischemic Rigor – When the muscle is depleted of ATP and it locks in a contracted state and cannot re-lax properly.Jejunum – The section of the small intestine between the duodenum and the ileum.

Ketones – An organic compound made in the liver when carbohydrate or fat is metabolized and creates an abundant amount of acetyl-CoA. This overwhelms the Krebs cycle and the extra acetyl-CoA is synthe-sized into ketones. These ketones are then released into the bloodstream and taken up by the muscles and used as fuel.

Ketogenesis – The process of two acetyl-CoA mol-ecules joining to create a ketone molecule.Kidneys – Either of a pair of structures in the dorsal region of the abdominal cavity, functioning to maintain proper water balance, regulate acid-base concentra-tion, and excrete metabolic wastes as urine.

Krebs Cycle – A series of enzymatic reactions in aerobic organisms involving oxidative metabolism of acetyl units, especially during the process of respira-tion, to provide the main source of cellular energy in the form of ATP.

Lactic Acid – Produced by anaerobic metabolism of carbohydrates in the muscle. It is what gives the muscles a burning sensation during and after strenu-ous work. Most lactic acid makes its way out of the muscle and into the bloodstream where it can be transported to the liver to be converted back into glu-cose for fuel again.Lactose – A simple sugar found in greatest quantities in milk products.

Lipid – One of numerous fats and fat-like materials that are generally insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents. They are related to the fatty acid esters and together with carbohydrates and proteins constitute the principal structural material of living cells.

Lipolysis – The breakdown of fat for energy.Lipoprotein Lipase – A fat-storing enzyme triggered by low caloric intake.

Liver – A large compound, tubular gland that secretes bile and acts in formation of blood and in metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins minerals and vita-mins.

Liver Amino Formula – This supplement is an ex-cellent source of balanced protein, essential amino acids, heme iron and B-complex vitamins. It also in-cludes peptide-bonded protein and dibencozide, an excellent oral form of B-12 and choline.

Lymphatic System – A network of vessels throughout the body for transporting large particles. This is the pathway used by fat to get from the intestines to the bloodstream and finally to adipose tissue.

Malonyl-CoA – A substance produced during carbo-hydrate metabolism that inhibits the action of the car-nitine shuttle in moving fat into the mitochondria.

Maltodextrin – Starch produced from grain containing the sugars maltose and dextrin.Mass – The physical volume or bulk of a solid body. Different from weight.

Maximum Endurance Formula – This supplement contains aspartates, substances used in the detoxi-fication and removal of toxins released during amino acid catabolism.

Metabolic Rate – The measurement of the body’s ability to utilize food for energy.

Metabolism – The complex of chemical and physical processes involved in the maintenance of life.Minerals – A naturally occurring, homogeneous inor-ganic substance with a specific chemical composition. These play specific roles in the body.

Mitochondria – A microscopic body occurring in the cells of nearly all living organisms and containing en-zymes responsible for the conversion of food for us-able energy.

Muscle – A tissue made up of fibers that can contract and relax to effect body movement. It is the most metabolically active tissue in the body.

Muscle Amino Formula – This supplement contains the branched chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine. These amino acids can be metabolized directly in the muscles, act as nitrogen carriers, and can decrease muscle catabolism by being used  energy in the muscle.

Myofibrils – Muscle fibers.

Myoglobin – The form of hemoglobin found in muscle cells.

Negatives – The eccentric or lowering part of an ex-ercise.

Nervous System – A coordinating system that regu-late internal body functions and responses to external stimuli; in vertebrates it consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia and parts of receptors and effector organs. This system transmits messages throughout the body through electrical signals.

Nitrogen Balance – The difference between the amount of nitrogen taken into and lost by the body. Used to determine if protein intake is adequate.

Nutrients – The basic substances that are necessary for life derived from food.Nutrition – The process of nourishing or being nour-ished. Especially by which a living organism assimi-lates food and uses it for growth, energy and tissue replacement.

Obesity – A condition of having an overabundance of adipose tissue on the body. Usually is determined by having 30% body fat or more.

Oxidation – Combination of a substance with oxygen, usually generating another substance and heat.

Oxidative Phosphorylation – A vital process of intra-cellular respiration occurring within the mitochondria of the cell, responsible for most ATP production.

Oxygen – A colorless gas comprising 21% of the at-mosphere by volume and essential to most combus-tion and combustive processes.

Pancreas – A long, soft, irregularly shaped gland lying behind the stomach that secretes digestive enzymes and produces insulin and glucagon.

Paracrine Hormones – Hormones that are released into the interstitial space between tissues and exert their effect only on nearby cells.

Parathyroid Glands – Any of four small kidney-shaped glands that lie in pairs near the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland and secrete a hormone neces-sary for calcium and potassium metabolism.Passive Diffusion – The act of a substance moving into a cell without resistance from that cell.

Peptides – A natural or synthetic compound contain-ing two or more amino acids linked by the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino acid group of another.

Pituitary Gland – A small, oval, endocrine gland at-tached to the base of the vertebrate brain (hypothala-mus) and whose secretions control the other endo-crine glands and influence growth, metabolism and maturation.

Portal Vein – A vein that conducts blood from the di-gestive organs, spleen, pancreas and gall bladder to the liver.

Potassium – A metallic element found in or converted to a wide variety of salts. Used by the body in several different ways, but primarily for water balance.

Potential Energy – The energy of a particle or sys-tem of particles derived from position rather than mo-tion. It is the amount of energy a substance has avail-able for work but has not used yet.

Pro-Carb – A high-quality supplement containing maltodextrin, a slow-release carbohydrate, and ca-seinate, a high-quality protein. Provides 105 calories, 22 grams of carbohydrate and 4 grams of protein per ounce serving.

Protein – Any of a group of complex nitrogenous organic compounds that have amino acids as their basic structural units and that are found in all living matter and are required for the growth and repair of tissue.

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) – A group of standards put forth by the National Research Coun-cil indicating the minimum amount of nutrients that should be eaten daily.

Respiratory Quotient – The ratio of carbon dioxide produced to oxygen consumed. Used to determine the type of nutrient being used for energy.

Serum – The clear, yellowish fluid that comprises the liquid part of whole blood.

Skeletal Muscle – A collection of striated muscle fi-bers connected at either or both extremities with the bony framework of the body.

Sodium – A soft, metallic element. Used by the body for many purposes, mainly as a regulator of water.

Somatomedin Hypothesis – A theory that growth hormone on its own does not promote growth but that some other intermediate substance, known as somatomedin C, stimulated by growth hormone is the substance that stimulate growth.

Somatomedin-C (IGF-1) – Known also as insulin-like growth factor (IGF), this substance produced primarily by the liver has been shown to promote growth in the absence of growth hormone. It also has insulin-like effects on glucose.

Somatotropes – The cells in the pituitary gland which produces growth hormone.

Sugar – Any of a class of water-soluble, crystalline carbohydrates. Sugars can be either simple (only one) or starches (two or more sugars combined).

Supplement Bar – A nutrition supplement containing 240 calories, 38 grams of carbohydrate, 11 grams of protein and 5.5 grams of CapTri medium chain fatty acid.

Testes – The male reproductive gland, the source of spermatozoa and of the androgens, particularly tes-tosterone. The testes is usually paired in an external scrotum in most animals.

Testosterone – A male sex hormone produced in the testes and controlling secondary sex characteristics.

Thermic Effect of Food (TEF) – Also known as the thermogenic effect, it is the measurement a food’s energy plus its tendency to be burned.

Thermogenesis – The process of food being burned and releasing energy as heat.

Thoracic Duct – The main duct of the lymphatic sys-tem, ascending along the spinal cord and discharging into the venous system.

Thyroid Gland – A two-lobed endocrine gland found in all vertebrates, located in front of and on either side of the trachea, and producing the hormone thy-roxin.

Thyroid Hormone – Present in two forms, T3 and T4 and produced in the thyroid. Most of the circulating hormone is T4 which is then converted to T3 inside the target cell. This hormone has little growth factor by itself, but helps to regulate, synthesize and pro-mote the action of growth hormone.

Thyroidectomy – The surgical removal of the thyroid gland.

Triglyceride – An ester of three fatty acids and a glycerol. Triglycerides can be classed as long chain (meaning they contain fatty acids that have 16-22 carbon atoms) which are predominant in conventional dietary fat, and medium chain (fatty acids with 6-14 carbon atoms) which are found in some foods but are not predominant. LCTs and MCTs are metabolized differently by the body.

Ultimate Amino Formula – A supplement that con-tains a profile of 17 different amino acids in free form state. This means that they are readily available for protein synthesis that occurs during muscle growth and repair.

Urea – A compound found in urine and other bodily fluids, synthesized from ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Vitamins – Any of various relatively complex organic substances found in plant and animal tissue and required in small quantities for controlling metabolic processes.

VO2max – 75% of the maximal aerobic capacity. This measure is used to determine the intensity of exer-cise.

Weight – The measure of the heaviness of an object as gravitational force is exerted on that object. Differ-ent from mass.

Technical Report #4 – Cellular Energy Production: Thermogenesis and Metabolic Rate

Even during rest the human body is constantly metaboliz-ing energy to maintain itself. The rate at which energy is expended by the body, expressed in calories per hour (or more rigorously normalized to calories expended per kg body mass per hour), is known as the metabolic rate. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the body’s rate of energy expenditure while at rest. This represents just the energy requirements of maintaining life, consisting mostly of maintenance of body temperature, heart rate, breathing, nerve transmission, and electrochemical gra-dients across cell membranes. The basal metabolic rate accounts for 65-75% of daily energy requirements (Van Zant, 1992). Other components of metabolic rate include the thermic effect of feeding (TEF; also referred to as diet-induced thermogenesis, or DIT), the thermic effect of activity (TEA), and adaptive thermogenesis (AT); Van Zant (1992).

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The components of energy expenditure are illustrated in figure 1. Metabolic rate is affected by many parameters such as eating (caloric consumption as well as dietary com-position), activity (dependent on type, intensity, and duration of activity), lean body mass, age, sex, hor-mones, and drugs .Since all of the energy expended by the body is ultimately converted to heat (except when work is performed outside the body), metabolic rate can be determined by the amount of heat energy liberated by the body (Guyton, 1976). A calorimeter can be used to directly measure the heat given off by the body. However, since greater than 95% of the energy lib-erated by the body is derived from the reaction of foods with oxygen, the metabolic rate can also be calculated from the rate of oxygen consumption (Guyton, 1976). In many studies metabolic rate, or energy expenditure, is expressed in terms of oxygen consumption.Thermic Effect of Feeding Medium Chain TriglyceridesAfter consuming a meal the food is digested, released into the bloodstream, and transported to all the cells of the body. There, it reacts with oxygen to produce en-ergy. Some of the energy is captured in ATP, the energy source used directly by cellular machinery performing work.

Calories consumed in excess of energy require-ments will be stored as body weight. About 55% of the energy contained in food is liberated as heat during the process of ATP formation (Guyton, 1976). This release of heat energy from the oxidation of foods rep-resents an increase in metabolic rate and is accompanied by increased oxygen consumption .Feeding different dietary items while maintaining caloric intake affects oxygen consumption (Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, 1982). That different foods, normalized for energy content, increase the metabolic rate to different extents probably reflects the tendency of a particular food to be burned for energy versus being stored as body weight, as well as its extent of digestion and absorption. That protein increases the metabolic rate more than carbohydrate and conventional fat sug-gests that certain amino acids may directly stimulate thermogenesis (Guyton, 1976). The increase in energy expenditure caused by feeding is known as diet-induced thermogenesis or the thermic effect of feeding (Van Zant, 1992). MCTs cause profound postprandial thermogen-esis because they are very caloric dense and are absorbed and metabolized very rapidly.

The rapid oxidation of MCFAs in the liver causes an increase in postprandial oxygen consumption, i.e. metabolic rate. The increase in metabolic rate resulting from MCT ingestion has been measured in humans as well as in rats, using LCTs as con-trols (Seaton et al, 1986; Hill et al, 1989; Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, 1982). The data seem straight forward, well controlled, and statistically significant. Baba, Bracco, and Hashim (1982) observed that rats overfed MCT gained significantly less fat than rats fed an isocaloric diet containing LCT as the fat source. This was attributed to higher resting oxygen consumption (metabolic rate) in the MCT group. The authors ex-plained this by pointing out that while conventional fats are transported as chylomicrons and are largely stored as body fat, MCTs are transported directly to the liver where they are oxidized extensively to produce energy. The rapid oxidation of MCTs results in increased oxygen consumption, increased heat generation, and increased metabolic rate. In 1986 Seaton and colleagues demonstrated in humans that a meal containing MCTs increased oxygen consump-tion 12% above basal levels for 6 hours following the meal, while the LCT-containing meal increased oxygen consumption by only 4%. This indicates that MCTs are burned faster than conventional fats and increase the metabolic rate more. The increase in energy expenditure accounted for 13% of the energy contained in the MCT meal and 4% of the energy contained in the LCT meal. Hill and coworkers (1989) also compared the thermo-genic effect of medium chain triglycerides with that of long chain triglycerides.

Ten male volunteers were hospitalized and fed diets containing 30% of calories from either MCT or LCT. Metabolic rate was measured before, during, and after the experiment. Each subject was studied for one week on each diet in a double-blind crossover design. The thermic effect of food (TEF) is defined as the difference between metabolic rate during a six hour period after eating and the resting metabolic rate. That is, it is a measure of the increase in metabolic rate caused by eating the test meal. On day one of the experiment, the TEF of the meal containing MCT ac-counted for 8% of the ingested energy, while the TEF of the LCT meal accounted for 5.5% of the ingested energy. On day six of the experiment, the TEF of the MCT meal had increased to 12% of ingested energy, and the TEF of the LCT meal was 6.6% of ingested energy (figure 2). This means that the MCT-enhancement of the metabolic rate increased during the course of the experiment as the subjects became acclimated to the MCTs. On the last day of the trial the subjects were fed a liquid diet by continuous tube feeding.

During this experiment it was found that the TEF of the MCT meal increased to 15.7% of ingested energy, and the TEF of the LCT meal was 7.3% of ingested energy. So the increase in metabolic rate was even greater when MCT was administered continually .Mechanisms of ThermogenesisThe chemical mechanism underlying this thermogenic effect is unknown at present, but several suggestions have been advanced. Hill and coworkers (1989 and 1990) demon-strated that MCT overfeeding results in in-creased hepatic de novo fatty acid synthesis in man. This process is energetically costly and could account for the lesser efficiency of storage of MCT-derived energy. The observed increase in thermogenesis agrees well with the energy cost associated with de novo lipogenesis (Hill et al, 1990). This observation was corroborated by Crozier (1988) working with isolated rat hepatocytes.Alternatively, if electron transport is uncoupled from oxidative phosphorylation the energy spent to es-tablish an electrochemical potential gradient across the mitochondrial membrane is dissipated as heat instead of being conserved as ATP (Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, 1987).

For example, in brown adipose tissue a pathway exists allowing proton leakage across the mitochondrial membrane (Nicholls, 1979).Another means of dissipating energy as heat, believed to occur in liver mitochondria, is redox cycling involv-ing the glycerophosphate and malate shuttles (Berry et al, 1985; Crozier et al, 1987). In the glycerophosphate shuttle, energy is spent to pump reducing equivalents outside the mitochondria to drive the reduction of di-hydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol-3-phosphate in the cytoplasm. The glycerol-3-phosphate then diffuses into the mitochondria and is oxidized to reform dihy-droxyacetone phosphate, which then diffuses out of the mitochondria to complete the cycle . The net result is the shuttle of glycerol-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate across the mitochondrial membrane (Berry et al, 1985; Crozier et al, 1987; Zubay, 1983, p. 401). Free energy is consumed to drive the cycle, but since no net work is performed the energy ultimately appears as heat (Berry et al, 1985).

The malate/aspartate shuttle is analogous .  Finally, increased activity of Na-K ATPase has also been suggested as a thermogenic mechanism for wasting en-ergy as heat (Levin and Sullivan, 1985). It is estimated that 10-40% of the total energy expended by the cell is used to maintain the concentration gradient of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane (Vander, Sherman, and Luciano, 1980). Since these ions also can cross the membrane by passive diffusion, an increase in the activity of the enzyme could be a mechanism for spending ATP.In all of the models - de novo fatty acid synthesis, proton leakage, redox cycling (or other futile cycles), and Na-K ATPase - the MCFAs are rapidly oxidized (explaining increased oxygen consumption), energy is consumed (explaining the low efficiency of storage of MCT-derived energy) and heat is produced as a by-prod-uct (explaining the thermogenic effect). Considerable evidence exists to support the involvement of de novo fatty acid synthesis as a mechanism for MCT-induced thermogenesis (Hill et al, 1989; Hill et al, 1990; Crozier, 1988) but other mechanisms may be involved as well. The reader is referred to Levin and Sullivan (1985) and Van Zant (1992) for reviews on thermogenesis and en-ergy balance.

References

1. Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, Enhanced thermogen-esis and diminished deposition of fat in response to over-feeding with diet containing medium chain triglyceride. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35: 678-682 (1982).

2. Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, Role of brown adipose tissue in thermogenesis induced by overfeeding a diet containing medium chain triglyceride . Lipids 22: 442-444 (1987).

3. Berry, Clark, Grivell, and Wallace, The contribu-tion of hepatic metabolism to diet-induced thermogenesis . Metab. 34: 141-147 (1985).

4. Crozier, Medium chain triglyceride feeding over the long term: the metabolic fate of C-14 octanoate and C-14 oleate in isolated rat hepatocytes. J. Nutr. 118: 297-304 (1988).

5. Crozier, Bois-Joyeux, Chanez, Girard, and Peret, Metabolic effects induced by long-term feeding of medium chain triglycerides in the rat. Metabolism 36: 807-814 (1987).

6. Guyton, Textbook of Medical Physiology. Pub-lished by W.B. Saunders, chapter 71 (1976).

7. Hill, Peters, Yang, Sharp, Kaler, Abumrad, and Greene, Thermogenesis in humans during overfeeding with medium chain triglycerides. Metabolism 38: 641-648 (1989).

8. Hill, Peters, Swift, Yang, Sharp, Abumrad, and Greene, Changes in blood lipids during six days of over- feeding with medium or long chain tri-glycerides. J. Lipid Res. 31: 407-416 (1990).

9. Levin and Sullivan, Regulation of thermogenesis in obesity. In: Novel Approaches and Drugs for Obesity, eds. Sullivan and Garattini, John Libbey and Co. Ltd. (1985).

10. Nicholls, Brown adipose tissue mitochondria. Bio-chim. Biophys. Acta 549: 1-29 (1979).

11. Seaton, Welle, Warenko, and Campbell, Thermic effect of medium chain and long chain triglycerides in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44: 630-634 (1986).

12. Vander, Sherman, and Luciano, Human Physiology - The Mechanisms of Body Function, p. 236. Published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1980 .

Technical Report #3 – Cellular Energy Production: The Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport, and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Humans and other animals obtain energy to support life, growth, and activity from food. The basic ques-tion is how is the energy contained in food extracted and transformed into a form which can be directly used as fuel by the body. The source of energy used by the body is the potential energy contained in the chemical bonds of food. Energy is either released or consumed during chemical reactions, depending on the relative energies of the reactants versus the products. The main foods used as energy substrates by the body are carbohydrates and fats. Carbohydrates and fats are different chemically, but have in common that they both contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. In this state, carbon is said to be reduced. In aerobic metabolism the carbon and hydrogen react with oxygen, forming CO2 and H2O.

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The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make water is extremely exergonic (this is the reaction that turned the Hindenburg into a fireball). This reaction releases energy because hydrogen and oxygen are more stable (i.e., have less energy) when they are joined together as water than when they exist separately. Most of the energy derived from the aero-bic metabolism of foods is from this reaction. Fats provide twice the caloric density of carbohydrates - 9 calories per gram for fat as compared to 4 calories per gram for carbohydrate. The reason fat contains more energy than carbohydrate is that in fat the carbon is in a more reduced form (Zubay, 1983, p. 482) - more hydrogen is packed in per carbon atom. In aerobic metabolism the carbon and hydrogen in foods react with oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O. This reaction releases energy because carbon diox-ide and water molecules contain less energy than the original food molecules and oxygen.

The same reac-tion occurs when a piece of food burns in the camp fire. In that situation the energy released by the reac-tion is simply liberated as heat to the surroundings. In the body the reaction is broken down into many small steps and the energy which is released is captured in a molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. About 67% of the energy obtained in glucose (the body’s chief fuel molecule) is captured by ATP and the rest is liberated as heat (Zubay, 1983, p. 395). This is a very impressive efficiency level compared to other machines. ATP is the immediate source of energy used to fuel nearly all cellular processes, including muscular contraction. The role of ATP is not to store energy (that is the role of body fat and glycogen) but rather to transfer energy from a food molecule to some other cellular molecule which is going to perform work (Vander, Sherman, Luciano, 1980, p. 80). Ener-gy is the ability to do work. Potential energy is energy which is stored and has the potential to perform work if it is released. The energy contained in a chemi-cal bond is a form of potential energy. The potential energy contained in the chemical bonds of food mol-ecules is released during oxidation, and this energy is transferred via ATP to other molecules which perform cellular work - everything from muscular contraction to protein synthesis .

Conceptually, it is convenient to break up this process into four stages, although in fact these stages are inti-mately linked in the cell. The first stage of carbohy-drate metabolism is glycolysis and the first stage of fat metabolism is beta-oxidation. The following stages of energy production are common to both fats and carbo-hydrates, and are the Krebs cycle, electron transport, and oxidative phosphorylation. The Krebs CycleThe central energy producing pathway in the body is the Krebs cycle (figure 1), named for the German chemist Hans Krebs. Krebs originally postulated this process, also known as the TCA cycle, in 1937 and was later awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953 for this work. Energy substrates derived from carbohydrates or fatty acids enter the Krebs cycle as the intermedi-ate acetyl-CoA. The ultimate end of the process is to convert the chemical energy contained in foods into ATP.

Adenosine triphosphate is an unstable molecule containing a high energy phosphate bond. When ATP is split, the energy contained in this phosphate bond is released and is available to perform work inside the cell. ATP is the immediate source of energy for nearly all cellular processes, and thus has earned its reputa-tion as “the energy currency of the cell.”Carbohydrates are initially metabolized via an anaerobic process known as glycolysis. Glu-cose enters the glycolytic pathway and is con-verted into two molecules of pyruvate, generat-ing a net yield of two ATP molecules. Under anaerobic conditions, as may be temporarily experienced in muscular tissue during weight training, pyruvate is reduced to lactate, or lactic acid, which causes a burning sensation in the muscle. Glycolysis is a relatively inefficient process, yielding only two ATPs per glucose molecule. The two lactate molecules account for roughly 93% of the energy present in the original glucose molecule, so only about 7% of the energy embodied in glucose is made avail-able for use. Of this, about 50% is captured in ATP (Zubay, 1983, p. 305).

In the presence of oxygen a different metabolic fate is available to pyruvate. Instead of being converted into lactate, pyruvate is decarboxylated to generate acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is also produced by beta-oxidation of fatty acids, as discussed Tech-nical Report #2.The basic point of the Krebs cycle is to provide the chemical means of completely oxidizing the carbon of glucose or fatty acids to CO2 and the hydrogen to H2O. This allows much more of the energy contained in the food molecule to be extracted and used by the cell, as compared to anaerobic metabolism. In each turn of the Krebs cycle two carbons enter as acetate and two carbons exit as CO2. The cycle involves eight intermediates, each of which is converted into the next by an enzyme specific for that step (figure 1). These reactions are localized in the mitochondria, the site of aerobic energy production within the cell. The first stage of carbohydrate metabolism, glycolysis, occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen.

The end-product of glycolysis, pyruvate, enters the mitochondria to be further metabolized. In the mi-tochondria pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase. Fats are oxidized to produce acetyl-CoA within the mitochondria. Long chain fatty acids must be ferried across the mitochondrial mem-brane by the carnitine shuttle, while medium chain fatty acids can transverse the membrane by passive diffusion.Acetyl-CoA donates the two-carbon compound acetate to a four-carbon acceptor oxaloacetate thereby gener-ating citrate, a six-carbon compound. During one turn of the cycle two molecules of carbon dioxide are liber-ated, ultimately regenerating oxaloacetate. The Krebs cycle intermediates are not consumed in the cycle and there is no net loss of carbon in the process, ignoring any side reactions which may occur. The cycle can thus be viewed as catalytic, since a relatively small amount of oxaloacetate can be used to metabolize an arbitrary amount of acetyl-CoA.

The activity of this pathway is controlled by the levels of its substrates and products, so that its level of energy production matches the energy needs of the cell. As the concentration of substrates increases, or the concentration of end products decreases, the activ-ity of the cycle increases. The most sensitive factors which directly regulate the cycle’s activity are the NAD/NADH ratio and the ATP/ADP ratio. The activ-ity of the first step in the pathway is also sensitive to the concentration of oxaloacetate.Under normal conditions the concentration of interme-diates such as oxaloacetate is not limiting. Medium chain triglycerides enter mitochondria independent of the carnitine shuttle, and thus bypass an important regulatory step in fatty acid oxidation (refer to Techni-cal Report #2). Medium chain triglycerides are oxi-dized so rapidly that the acetyl-CoA which is produced can overwhelm the amount of oxaloacetate available to accept it (Bach and Babayan, 1982). Some portion of the acetyl-CoA is then diverted to another metabolic fate - ketogenesis. In ketogenesis two molecules of acetyl-CoA combine to form ketone bodies, primar-ily acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutarate (refer to Technical Report #2). This process is diminished if oxaloacetate precursors, such as aspartate and pyru-vate, are co-administered with the MCTs (Bach and Babayan, 1982; Crozier, 1988).

This suggests that the ketogenic properties of MCTs are due, in fact, to their ability to overwhelm the capacity of the Krebs cycle at the level of oxaloacetate.Only one ATP molecule is produced directly by each turn of the Krebs cycle. This is referred to as “sub-strate level phosphorylation” since the generation of ATP is directly coupled to a specific chemical reaction. In other words, ADP participates as a substrate in the reaction. Most of the energy derived from aerobic metabolism comes from subsequent oxidation of the NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle. This is referred to as “oxidative phosphorylation” since here ATP synthesis is coupled to the oxidation of NADH and FADH2. Aerobic metabolism can the be thought of as having two phases: the oxidative phase in which electrons (in the form of hydrogen atoms) are removed from organic substrates and transferred to coenzyme carriers (FAD and NAD), followed by the reoxidation of the reduced coenzymes (FADH and NADH2) by the transfer of electrons (again in the form of hydrogen) to oxygen, generating H2O (Zubay, 1983, p. 325).

The reduction of oxygen to water to extremely exergonic and most of the ATP is generated during this process. The oxidation of acetyl-CoA involves removal of electrons (as hydrogen) from the Krebs cycle inter-mediates and transfer of hydrogen to the coenzymes FAD and NAD. In the process, these coenzymes are reduced to FADH and NADH2. (In chemistry, “oxi-dation” is the removal of electrons and “reduction” is the addition of electrons.) Subsequently, the reduced coenzymes are reoxidized by transfer of the hydrogens to oxygen in the “electron transport chain.” Ultimate-ly, ATP is synthesized by oxidative phosphorylation of ADP, which is driven by a proton gradient generated in the process of electron transport (Zubay, 1983, p. 325).The reactions of the Krebs cycle can be summarized by the following equation (Zubay, 1983, p. 335):acetyl-CoA + 2 H2O + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + 3 H+ + FADH2 + CoA + ATP Two carbons enter as acetate and exit as CO2, pro-ducing ATP, NADH, and FADH2 as byproducts. The FADH and NADH2 in turn enter the electron transport chain to be further metabolized.Electron Transport and Oxidative PhosphorylationAlthough some ATP is directly generated by the Krebs cycle, more significant products of the cycle are the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2. Most of the energy contained in the starting material is still pres-ent in these coenzymes. The primarily energy yield of aerobic metabolism occurs when NADH and FADH2 are re-oxidized to NAD and FAD.

This process is known as electron transport because electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transported via a chain of electron carriers and are ultimately transferred to mo-lecular oxygen.  Oxygen is a very electronegative element, meaning that it has a strong affinity for electrons. In essence, oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water because oxygen has a high affinity for electrons, and hydrogen represents an easy source. Hydrogen does not have a strong affinity for electrons and basically gets trapped into sharing its electrons with oxygen. The overall reactions can be summarized as (Zubay, 1983, p. 364): NADH + H+ + 1/2O2 NAD+ + H20 G = -52.6 kcal/mol FADH2 + 1/2O2 FAD + H20 G = -43.4 kcal/molThe reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 serve as donors of electrons (as hydrogen) which combine with oxygen to form water. The delta-G expression indicates that the reaction will proceed spontaneously with the release of energy. Enough energy is released to drive the synthesis of several ATPs. Therefore, rather than wasting energy, the above reaction is di-vided up into several small steps.

The energy release is thus parcelled out in small packets to allow ATP to be generated more efficiently (Zubay, 1983, p. 365).  To achieve this, electrons are transported from the reduced coenzymes to oxygen via a series of carri-ers, arranged in the order of increasing electron affin-ity (figure 2). These electron carriers are molecules (some of them proteins) capable of undergoing revers-ible oxidation-reduction reactions.These electron transporters are embedded within the mitochondrial inner membrane (mitochondria are double-membraned structures). The energy which is released as electrons are transported down the chain to acceptors of ever increasing electron affinity is not directly used to synthesize ATP. Instead, the energy is used to generate a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This results in an electric field across the membrane (about 0.14 V) as well as a pH gradient (about 1.4 units). Protons are actively pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane us-ing the energy derived from electron transport. In or-der to establish a proton concentration gradient across the membrane, the membrane must be impermeable to passive diffusion of protons.

Protons re-enter the mitochondrial matrix (driven by the concentration gra-dient) through a protein structure embedded within the membrane known as F0. F0 is physically attached to another protein structure known as F1-ATPase, which directly synthesizes ATP from ADP and phosphate. The precise mechanism by which energy is transferred from F0 to F1 and subsequently used to drive ATP synthesis is still under investigation, but may involve protein conformational changes or channeling of pro-tons through the enzyme active site (Zubay, 1983, p. 393). In summary, ATP is a molecule used to transfer energy from fuel substrates to cellular machinery performing work. The specific way in which this is accomplished is simple in principle but complicated in its actual ex-ecution. In principle, energy is derived from foods by their reaction with oxygen, just as when food is burned in a fire. Instead of being released as heat to the sur-roundings, some of the energy is captured as ATP. To achieve this efficiently, the process is broken down into several small steps. The first stage is to convert food molecules into a two-carbon compound, acetyl-CoA. For carbohydrates this is achieved by glycolysis followed by decarboxylation of pyruvate; fatty acids are converted to acetyl-CoA by beta-oxidation.

The acetyl-CoA, whether derived from carbohydrate or fat, is next metabolized in the Krebs cycle. One ATP molecule is generated per acetyl-CoA directly in the Krebs cycle, by “substrate level phosphorylation.” The carbon entering the Krebs cycle is released as CO2. Hydrogen present in the original food is now in the form of the reduced coenzymes NADH or FADH2. Most of the energy from aerobic metabolism is de-rived from oxidation of these reduced coenzymes in the electron transport chain . The summary reactions of the electron transport chain suggest that the hydro-gen from NADH and FADH2 combine with oxygen to form water, a well known exergonic reaction. How-ever, this does not happen directly. Instead, the energy released as electrons are transported down the chain (to electron acceptors of increasing electron affinity) is used to generate a proton gradient across the mito-chondrial membrane. The movement of protons back inside the membrane through the F0-F1 complex pro-vides the driving force for ATP synthesis by F1. This is referred to as “oxidative phosphorylation” because the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP is coupled to the oxidative events occurring in the electron transport chain .

Energy Production and the AthleteAthletes experience increased energy need as com-pared to sedentary people . Bicycle racers and other endurance athletes can require as much as 10,000 calories per day to support their activity level. Body-builders commonly consume in excess of 8,000 calories daily to fuel their training and support gains in body weight. The body draws on three different types of food as energy substrates: fats, carbohydrates, and protein. Of these, carbohydrate is the most preferred. Carbohydrates are easily digested and rapidly enter the bloodstream as glucose. Glucose is immediately used as fuel by the cell. A byproduct of glucose metabo-lism is malonyl-CoA, which inhibits carnitine acyl-transferase I. Since long chain fatty acids require the carnitine shuttle in order to be transported inside the mitochondria, they are not used as fuel to a significant extent until the carbohydrates are depleted. Similarly, amino acids can be also oxidized to produce energy but are not used as fuel to a significant extent until carbohydrate is depleted. Of course, one of the primary goals of bodybuilders is to increase muscle mass.

Therefore amino acids are more valuable to use as protein rather than as fuel. Conventional fats are not a good energy source for bodybuilders either since they cannot be metabolized anaerobically and are not burned rapidly enough to meet the energy demands of high intensity exercise such as weight lifting (Coleman, 1991). Medium chain triglycerides are absorbed and metabolized much more rapidly than conventional fats and are immediately available for energy (Bach and Babayan, 1982). MCTs are an excellent quick energy source, harnessing the caloric density of fat but being metabo-lized as rapidly as glucose (Bach and Babayan, 1982).  Furthermore, MCTs and the ketone bodies they pro-duce decrease glucose uptake and utilization (Lavau and Hashim, 1978) and this seems to result in a glu-cose-sparing effect (Cotter et al, 1987). MCTs also have a protein-sparing effect and may reduce skeletal muscle protein catabolism, leaving amino acids avail-able for use as protein instead of being oxidized as fuel (Babayan, 1987; Haymond, Nissen, and Miles, 1983). Medium chain triglycerides are an excellent energy source for anyone experiencing increased en-ergy needs (Bach and Babayan, 1982) and are ideally suited to the special needs of athletes.

References

1. Babayan. Medium chain triglycerides and structured lipids. Lipids 22: 417-420 (1987).

2. Bach and Babayan. Medium chain triglycer-ides: an update. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36:950-962 (1982).

3. Coleman. Carbohydrates: the master fuel. In: Sports Nutrition for the 90s, eds.Berning and Steen. Aspen Publishers, 1991.

4. Cotter, Taylor, Johnson, and Rowe, A meta-bolic comparison of pure long chain triglyceride lipid emulsion (LCT) and various medium chain tri-glyceride (MCT)-LCT combination emulsions in dogs Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 45: 927-939 (1987).

5. Crozier. Medium chain triglyceride feeding over the long term: the metabolic fate of C-14 octano-ate and C-14 oleate in isolated rat hepato-cytes. J. Nutr. 118: 297-304 (1988).

6. Guyton. Textbook of Medical Physiology. Published by W.B. Saunders, 1976.

7. Haymond, Nissen, and Miles, Effects of ketone bodies on leucine and alanine metabolism in normal man. In: Amino Acids - Metabolism and Medical Applications, Eds. Blackburn, Grant, and Young. Published by John Wright PSG Inc., pages 89-95 (1983).

8. Lavau and Hashim, Effect of medium chain triglyc-eride on lipogenesis and body fat in the rat. J. Nutr. 108: 613-620 (1978).

9. Vander, Sherman, and Luciano. Human Physiology - The Mechanisms of Body Function. Published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1980.

10. Zubay. Biochemistry. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1983 .

Technical Report #2 – Metabolism of Fatty Acids: Mitochondria, The Carnitine Shuttle, Beta-Oxidation, and Ketogenesis

Once inside a cell, fatty acids can be oxidized (burned) to release energy. The site of energy production with-in the cell is a membranous organelle called a mito-chondrion. Long chain fatty acids cannot simply enter the mitochondria by themselves; they must be ac-tively transported across the mitochondrial membrane (Record et al, 1986).

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First, the fatty acid is converted to its active form, acyl-CoA. The long chain acyl-CoA is then transesterified to L-carnitine by carnitine acyltransferase I (CAT I), generating acylcarnitine. A protein carrier embed-ded within the mito-chondrial membrane acts as a shuttle to transport the LCFA-carnitine complexes into the inner mito-chondrial space . Once there, carnitine acyl-transferase II (CAT II) releases the fatty acid in its activated form, acyl-CoA (figure 1).The enzymes respon-sible for oxidation of fatty acids are located inside the mitochon-dria. Therefore, if fatty acids are not permitted to enter the mitochondria they cannot be burned for energy. Entry into the mitochon-dria is regulated by the activity of the carnitine shuttle. This transport system is not very active if carbohy-drates are available because carbohydrate metabolism generates malonyl-CoA, which inhibits CAT I. In addition, glucagon (the hormonal antagonist of insu-lin) is involved in stimulating mobilization of body fat stores and use of fat for energy. Following carbo-hydrate ingestion insulin is released and glucagon is suppressed, so very little body fat is used for energy.

After carbohydrate reserves have been diminished, the body releases glucagon as a signal to begin burning fat. These are the reasons why fat stores are drawn upon for energy only after glycogen has been depleted.The inhibition of CAT I by malonyl-CoA represents a regulatory mechanism to prevent the wasteful use of energy substrates. Generally speaking, the body uses carbohydrate fuels first and stores fat as an energy reserve. Fat contains twice the energy density of car-bohydrate (9 calories per gram versus 4 calories per gram) and does not require water for storage, as does carbohydrate. Fat is thus a more efficient molecule for energy storage. Ani-mals are able to store only a small amount of energy as carbohydrate (in the form of liver and muscle glycogen) but can store a virtually unlimited amount of energy as fat.In contrast to long chain fats, MCFAs (includes MCTs) are immediately available for energy. Me-dium chain fatty acids are retained by the liver, where they are rapidly and extensively oxidized (Bach and Babayan, 1982). Medium chain fatty acids can en-ter the mitochondria by passive diffusion and do not require the carnitine transport system (Record et al, 1986; Bach and Babayan, 1982).

MCFAs thus can be used for energy even in the presence of carbohydrates, and in fact have a carbohydrate-sparing effect (Lavau and Hashim, 1978; Cotter et al, 1987). Once inside the mitochondria all fatty acids are burned in a process tion. During beta-oxidation, blocks of two carbon atoms are removed from the activated fatty acid (acyl-CoA) to form acetyl-CoA (figure 2). The intermediate acetyl-CoA can then undergo several metabolic fates: i) it can enter the Krebs cycle to generate ATP; ii) it can be used to generate ketone bodies; iii) it can be used as a substrate for fatty acid synthesis or elonga-tion; or iv) it can be consumed in an energy trans-forming process known as reversed electron transfer (Bach and Babayan, 1982; Berry et al, 1985; Crozier et al, 1987).The vast majority of MCFAs (includes MCTs) are re-tained in the liver where they undergo beta-oxidation, producing acetyl-CoA. To enter the Krebs cycle (the body’s central energy producing pathway) the acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate, producing citrate. Me-dium chain fatty acids are oxidized in the liver so rapidly that the supply of oxaloacetate becomes limiting.

As a result, the capacity of the Krebs cycle is overwhelmed and a large proportion of the acetyl-CoA is directed to-ward the synthesis of ketone bodies (Bach and Babayan, 1982). This process is known as “ketogenesis” (figure 3). Ketone bodies are released from the liver into the blood and are subsequebtly taken up by muscles and used as fuel. LCT ingestion also causes an increase in blood levels of ketone bodies during fasting, but only MCT will still produce ketone bodies if carbohydrates are con-currently ingested (Sucher, 1986). Once inside muscle cells, ketone bodies are converted back to acetyl-CoA, which then enters the Krebs cycle to produce ATP. The conversion of MCFAs to ketone bodies occurs even in the presence of carbohydrates. This additional source of energy decreases glucose uptake and utilization (Lavau and Hashim, 1978) and thus may extend endurance by sparing glycogen (Cotter et al, 1987).

References

Bach and Babayan, Medium chain triglycerides: an update. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36:950-962 (1982).

Berry, Clark, Grivell, and Wallace, The contribution of hepatic metabolism to diet-induced thermogenesis. Metab. 34: 141-147 (1985).

Cotter, Taylor, Johnson, and Rowe, A metabolic com-parison of pure long chain triglyceride lipid emulsion (LCT) and various medium chain triglyceride (MCT)

LCT combination emulsions in dogs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 45: 927-939 (1987).

Crozier, Bois-Joyeux, Chanez, Girard, and Peret, Metabolic effects induced by long-term feeding of medium chain triglycerides in the rat. Metabolism 36: 807-814 (1987).

Lavau and Hashim, Effect of medium chain triglycer-ide on lipogenesis and body fat in the rat. J. Nutr. 108: 613-620 (1978).

Record, Kolpek, and Rapp, Long chain versus medium chain length triglycerides - a review of metabolism and clinical use. Nutr. Clin. Prac. 1:129-135 (1986).

Sucher, Medium chain triglycerides: a review of their enteral use in clinical nutrition. Nutr. Clin. Prac. 44: 146-150 (1986).

Technical Report #1 – Metabolism of Medium Chain Trigylcerides: Introduction

Fats, or lipids, are found in all cells and perform a variety of functions essential for life. These include their roles in energy storage, membrane structure, and incorpora-tion in vitamins, hormones, and prostaglandins (Zubay, 1983). Fats are used to cushion and insulate the body and function as electrical insulation in the nervous system. Triglycerides are the most common form of fat found in foods and stored in body fat depots. Triglycerides are comprised of three fatty acids (figure 1) esterified to a glycerol backbone (figure 2). Most naturally occuring triglycerides contain fatty acids 16-20 carbon atoms in length. Such fatty acids are called “long chain fatty ac-ids” (LCFAs), and their corresponding triglycerides are called “long chain triglycerides” (LCTs).

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Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) are comprised of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs), which are 6-12 carbons in length. Although the carboxylic acid part of fatty acids is soluble in water, the hydrocarbon chain is not. Thus, LCFAs are not water soluble. Since the hydrocarbon chains of MCFAs are shorter, MCFAs are more water soluble than LCFAs. Likewise, MCTs are also relatively soluble in water, due to ionization of the carboxylic acid groups and the small size of the hydrocarbon chains . Their small molecular size and greater water solu-bility cause MCTs to undergo a differ-ent metabolic path than that experienced by LCTs (Bach and Babayan, 1982).

Occurrence and Purification of MCTsMedium chain triglycerides occur naturally in small quantities in a variety of foods, and are present naturally in the blood of the human fetus and in human milk (Bach and Babayan, 1982; Souci, Fachmann, Kraut, 1989/90). In cow’s milk, C6-C14 fatty acids together account for 20% of the total fatty acid composition (Christensen et al, 1989). Commercially, medium chain fatty acids are prepared by the hydrolysis of coconut oil (an abundant source) and are fractionated by steam distillation. The MCFAs so obtained consist of predominantly C8:0, with lesser amounts of C10:0, and minute amounts of C6:0 and C12:0. The fractionated MCFAs are re-esterified with glycerol to generate MCTs (Bach and Babayan, 1982). MCT oil softens or splits certain plastics such as polyethylene and polystyrene, but not polypropylene. It is recommended that MCT oil be stored in metal, glass, or ceramic containers (Sucher, 1986). MCT oil has a caloric density of 8.3 calories per gram; one tablespoon equals 14 grams and contains 115 calories. MCTs are not drugs and have no pharmacological effects (Bach and Babayan, 1982). Historical Uses of MCTsSince their introduc-tion in 1950 for the treatment of fat malab-sorption problems, me-dium chain triglycer-ides have enjoyed wide application in enteral and parenteral nutri-tion regimens (Bach and Babayan, 1982).

Fat emulsions can be used to provide up to 60% of nonprotein calories. Before the availability of lipid emulsions suitable for intravenous use, glucose was used as the only nonprotein source of calories (Mascioli et al, 1987). Not only did this result in essential fatty acid deficiencies, but it was also undesirable because it increased hepatic lipogenesis and respiratory work. Although inclusion of LCTs in intravenous feedings represented an improvement, problems remained with slow clearance of LCTs from the bloodstream and inter-ference with the RES component of the immune system. When medium chain triglycerides or structured lipids (triglycerides containing both MCFAs and LCFAs) are added to the regimen, calories are provided in a more readily oxidizable form (Schmidl, Massaro, and Labuza; 1988), and less interference with the RES is observed (Mascioli et al, 1987). In one case, MCT was fed as the exclusive source of fat (along with a small amount of LCT to provide essential fatty acids) to a patient with chyluria (a fat malabsorption disease) for over 15 years without producing side effects (Geliebter et al, 1983).

Sports NutritionAlthough MCTs have been used in hospital environments for years, their use by healthy individuals is relatively new. Recently, athletes have begun to use MCTs to II. MetabolismDigestion and Absorption of FatsSince LCTs are not very soluble in water, the body has to go through an elaborate digestive process in order to absorb these nutrients. Bile salts are secreted by the gall bladder to help dissolve the LCTs. Upon ingestion, LCTs interact with bile in the duodenum (upper small intes-tine) and are incorporated into mixed micelles (Record et al, 1986). Enzymes called lipases (pancreatic lipase and phospholipase A2) remove the fatty acid molecule from the glycerol backbone. The mixed micelles are passively absorbed into the intestinal mucosa where the free fatty acids are re-esterified with glycerol. The in-testinal mucosa synthesizes a lipoprotein carrier called a chylomicron to transport the reformed triglyceride. Chy-lomicrons are secreted into the lymph and are released into the venous circulation via the thoracic duct. In the bloodstream, lipoprotein lipase again breaks down the triglycerides into two free fatty acids and a monoglyc-eride.

The monoglycerides go to the liver to be further degraded, while many of the circulating free fatty acids are taken up and stored by adipocytes (fat cells). When carbohydrates are consumed insulin is released, and in-sulin stimulates adipocytes to re-esterify the fatty acids into triglycerides and store them as body fat. In general, body fat stores are not mobilized and used for energy to any significant extent in the presence of insulin.In contrast, since MCFAs are more water soluble they are more easily absorbed and do not require this complicated digestive process. MCTs can be absorbed intact and do not require the action of pancreatic lipase or incorpo-ration into chylomicrons. Instead, a lipase within the intestinal cell degrades the MCT into free MCFAs and glycerol. The MCFAs are bound to albumin, released into the bloodstream, and transported directly to the liver by the portal vein. The vast majority of MCFAs are retained by the liver where they are rapidly and extensively oxidized. Whereas conventional fats are largely deposited in fat cells, MCTs are transported directly to the liver and used for energy. Very little of the MCFAs ever escape the liver to reach the general circulation (Bach and Babayan, 1982). Only 1-2% of MCTs are incorporated into depot fat (Geliebter et al, 1983; Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, 1982). Medium chain triglycerides are digested and absorbed much faster than conventional fats (in fact, as rapidly as glucose) and are immediately available for energy.

References

Baba, Bracco, and Hashim, Enhanced thermogenesis and diminished deposition of fat in response to overfeeding with diet containing medium chain triglyceride. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35: 678-682 (1982).

Bach and Babayan, Medium chain triglycerides: an up-date. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36:950-962 (1982).Christensen, Hagve, Gronn, and Christophersen, Beta-oxidation of medium chain (C8-C14) fatty acids studied in isolated liver cells.

Biochem. et Biophys. Acta 1004: 187-195 (1989).Geliebter, Torbay, Bracco, Hashim, and Van Itallie, Overfeeding with medium chain triglyceride diet results in diminished deposition of fat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 37: 1-4 (1983).

Mascioli, Bistrian, Babayan, and Blackburn, Medium chain triglycerides and structured lipids as unique non-glucose energy sources in hyperalimentation . Lipids 22: 421-423 (1987).

Record, Kolpek, and Rapp, Long chain versus medium chain length triglycerides - a review of metabolism and clinical use. Nutr. Clin. Prac. 1:129-135 (1986).

Schmidl, Massaro, and Labuza, Parenteral and enteral food systems. Food Tech. 77-87 (July, 1988).Souci, Fachmann, and Kraut, Food Composi-tion and Nutrition Tables 1989/90. Published by Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft (1989).

Sucher, Medium chain triglycerides: a review of their enteral use in clinical nutrition. Nutr. Clin. Prac. 44: 146-150 (1986).Zubay, Biochemistry, chapter 13: “Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols,” by Denis E. Vance. Published by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company

Bulletin #171 – The Real Superfoods

There’s a lot of talk these days about “superfoods” – foods that give you extra nutrients, provide energy, help fight disease and aging, and for body-builders and athletes, build muscle. Obviously, superfoods are the way to go to get the most health- and mus-cle-building nutrition for your time and money. And fortunately, the Parrillo Nutrition program is packed with superfoods. For example:Lean ProteinsProteins are found in all cells and tissues and are required for the structure and function of every part of the body. And of special interest to bodybuilders, muscles are made of protein. Protein is required in the diet to maintain tissues and organs and to supply building blocks for growth. Proteins from animal sources such as meat, eggs, and milk, are called “complete” proteins because they supply all the essential amino acids. Animal proteins provide a balance of amino acids similar to that of human tissues. Plant proteins have a profile of amino acids different from hu-man proteins.

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For this reason animal proteins are considered to be higher quality protein foods. Most vegetable proteins are deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids and are therefore called “incomplete” pro-teins. However, if vegetable proteins are combined properly, the balance of amino acids in the combination can approach the amino acid profile found in animal proteins. Superfood protein sources in-clude skinless turkey breast, skin-less chicken breast, fish, and egg whites. Fish, in particular, is vital in terms of heart disease. Salmon and other fatty fish – like mackerel, lake trout, herring, sardines and tuna – are rich in omega-3 fatty ac-ids that decrease the risk of heart attack and stroke, and may cut your risk of death from coronary artery disease in half. Omega-3 fats also have immune-enhancing and anti-inflammatory effects, reduce the risk of prostate and colon cancers, and ease the symptoms of rheuma-toid arthritis and some psychiatric disorders.

Starchy CarbohydratesCarbohydrates are energy foods. During digestion, they are changed into glucose (blood sugar), which circulates in your blood and is used as energy for the red blood cells and your central nervous sys-tem. Glucose not used right away is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, which provides an ad-ditional reservoir for energy. Carbohydrates also supply an amazing fat-fighting nutrient – fi-ber, the non-digestible remnant of plant foods. A growing body of re-search shows that high-fiber eating helps peel off pounds and banish them for good. How exactly does fiber work this weight-loss magic? When eaten with other nutrients like protein, fiber slows the rate of diges-tion too, stabilizing your blood sugar between meals so that it is not con-verted to fat stores.The superfood carbohydrates found in the Parrillo Nutrition Program in-clude certain types of whole grains, brown rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, legumes (beans and lentils), and non starchy vegetables (see be-low), from broccoli and green beans to cauliflower to salad vegetables (what we call “fibrous carbs”).

Non-Starchy VegetablesYou can’t go wrong with vegetables; every one is a superfood. But here are a few stand-outs:BroccoliThis amazing vegetable is rich in sulforaphane, an antioxidant linked with a reduced risk of a number of cancers, especially lung, stomach, colon and rectal cancers. The nutri-ents in broccoli also have an-ti-in-flammatory properties, and we know that an important factor in reducing the risk of disease is to decrease in-flammation.SpinachImprove your vision and protect against cancer with spinach, one of the richest dietary sources of an an-tioxidant called lutein. Lutein helps protect against heart disease and some cancers, and has been shown to reduce the risk of cataracts and macular degeneration. Spinach is also rich in beta-carotene, which may protect against cancer. Other lutein-rich foods include kale, collard greens, chard and beet greens.

TomatoesThese are loaded with lycopene, an an-tioxidant that reduces the risk of pros-tate, breast, lung and other cancers, and has heart-protective effects. Research shows that the absorption of lycopene is greatest when tomatoes are cooked with olive oil. Good FatsGood fats are superfoods. They fall un-der a general classification called un-saturated fats. There are two types of unsaturated fats: polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. Oils such as saf-flower, sunflower, corn, soybean and fish oils, evening primrose oil found in Parrillo Evening Primrose Oil 1000™ and Parrillo Fish Oil DHA 800 EPA 200™ are polyunsaturated fats.

They contain “essential fatty acids,” or EFAs for short. Required for normal body function, EFAs must be supplied by your diet since the body cannot make them on its own.From EFAs, your body synthesizes two other important fatty acids, eicosapen-taenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaeno-ic acid (DHA). These fatty acids, along with alpha linolenic acid, are referred to as omega-3 fatty acids, a term that describes their molecular structure. You can also obtain EPA and DHA directly from cold-water fish, flaxseed and omega-3 enriched eggs (eggs from chickens fed fish meal or flax meal).Monounsaturated fats are plentiful in olive, canola and peanut oils; they are also found in shellfish and cold-water fish such as salmon, mackerel, halibut, black cod and rainbow trout.So if you’re looking for what re-ally works for optimal health and disease prevention, focus on super-foods. The Parrillo Nutrition Pro-gram is filled with them.

Bulletin #170 – Back on the Wagon: My 2-Day Undo Diet

If you’re like millions of Ameri-cans right now, you indulged over the holidays – and that’s okay and that’s normal. You probably don’t even have to jump on the scales to confirm that you’re heavier. A quick look in mirror says it all: yes, you look bloated. But hold on. Don’t throw in the towel yet. With the holidays over, you can start again with a clean slate and get your momentum going with my 2-Day Undo Diet. Start it on Monday and continue on Tuesday. It will re-energize you, help flush out salt and processed sugar, leave you feeling full, and prep you for dropping fat pounds. Time is of the essence, so let’s get started!Pre-Breakfast AerobicsWhen your alarm goes off that morning, start with 16 ounces of pure, fresh water. Then get into your exercise clothes for pre-breakfast aerobics.

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That’s right, do your aer-obics on an empty stomach. Then your glycogen levels are somewhat depleted from your overnight fast and insulin levels are low. This in-ternal situation forces your body to start drawing on your fat reserves for energy. With pre-breakfast aero-bics, you’ll start stripping away fat. Do pre-breakfast aerobics Monday and Tuesday mornings – for 30 to 60 minutes each time. You should do moderate to fairly high intensity aerobics, so that you’re breathing hard and sweating. While it’s true you burn a higher percentage of calories from fat dur-ing low intensity aerobics, you will burn more grams of body fat if you perform high intensity aerobics, because you’ll burn so many more total calories. Also, if you do rea-sonably intense aerobics you will get the added benefits of increased vascular density and enhanced fat burning capacity. Increase the vol-ume of aerobics progressively as you get leaner.

If your fat loss plateaus, the first thing to try is to increase the intensity of your aerobics, while increasing your calories to get your metabolism going again.Mon. & Tues. Weight TrainingIn addition to aerobics, lift weights 45 to 60 minutes a day on Monday and Tuesday. On this program I would recommend a two-day split, which means you train your upper body on Monday and your lower body on Tuesday. That way, you hit your entire body and all your mus-cles.Multiple MealsDivide your food choices evenly over five or six meals. Most people get better results if they keep food selections relatively simple for this program. You will get good results using egg whites, skinless chicken breast and low-fat tuna for protein sources. Have generous portions of vegetables and salad at each meal. You can have essentially all the veg-etables and salad you want. It’s very difficult to eat too many calories from vegetables.

I’m talking about things like broccoli, cauliflower, as-paragus, spinach, green beans, and so on. Refer to the Parrillo Perfor-mance Nutrition Manual for a more extensive list, as well as the nutrientbreakdown.Some tips for taste: Use green leaf lettuce with fresh peppers and on-ions, tomatoes and some fresh cilan-tro. Balsamic vinegar or lemon juice make tangy dressings with practi-cally no calories. Grill your chicken outside to keep things flavorful. Or have some fresh grilled salmon or swordfish instead of tuna. Add some fresh mushrooms and chopped pep-pers to the egg whites. It doesn’t take too much effort to make this diet en-joyable. You will enjoy it even more once you see how fast the results come.Limit Starchy CarbsStarches are things like potatoes, oatmeal, corn, peas, beans and rice.

Treat yourself to a cup of oatmeal inthe morning and maybe one other starch during the day. By supplying most of your carbs as vegetables and salad instead of starch, you will findit easier to drop pounds and flush your system of toxins. The bulk willhelp fill you up, the volume of food will be more satisfying and the veg-etables will produce a smaller insu-lin response.Eat BreakfastAnother important point is to al-ways eat breakfast – this gets your metabolism going first thing. This is why breakfast is probably your most important meal. You have the whole day to burn off any excess calories you consume at breakfast – any excess calories you consume right before bed are likely to be stored as fat.Add in CapTri®Since you’re temporarily reducing starchy carbs to promote fat metabo-lism, it makes sense to replace thosecalories with another fuel source, namely CapTri®. CapTri® is a good choice because it is readily burned as fuel and won’t be stored as body fat. CapTri® actually has a higher “ther-mogenic effect” than carbohydrate, meaning that more of this dietary energy will be lost as body heat with less energy available for storage. This further promotes additional fat loss.

Include up to 3 tablespoons of Cap-Tri® daily over the two-day period.Supplement!In addition to CapTri®, there are foursupplements that really help on this program. First are the Essential Vi-tamin™ and Mineral-Electrolyte™ formulas. Since you are avoiding fruit and milk, you will need a vitamin and mineral supplement. It is difficult to supply your body’s requirement for calcium without using a lot of dairy products, unless you use a supple-ment. Next is Parrillo Creatine Mono-hydrate™, which is in a class by itselfin terms of supplements. You cannot be your most muscular and lean with-out using creatine. No matter how good you look, you’ll be better if you add creatine. Last is Optimized Whey Protein™. We started with the finest quality whey protein and then fine tuned the amino acid profile by adding extra glycine, glutamine and branched chain amino acids. I would con-sider this a “must have” supplement while dieting strictly. The high lev-els of glutamine and BCAAs act toprotect muscle tissue during energy restricted diets.SleepAlways try to get enough sleep. If you are unable to sleep optimally, your recovery will suffer and you won’t be able to train each muscle group as frequently.

During sleep, your body releases growth hormone (GH), a protein hormone made by the pituitary gland, a small secre-tory gland at the base of the brain that enhances protein synthesis and other functions.Keep Your MomentumYou probably have a long-term ob-jective of losing a certain number of fat pounds and gaining muscle. After the two-day diet, keep going! Renew your commitment daily to yourself and to the Parrillo Nutri-tion Program. Do this, and you’ll guarantee long-term results.Okay – Get ready to take action! I know you can do it.

Here’s the diet:Monday Undo Diet

Meal 1• 5 to 6 scrambled egg whites• 1 cup oatmeal• Water or black coffee

Meal 2• 1 serving Parrillo Optimized Whey Protein Powder™

Meal 3• 2 cups mixed-greens salad with 4 to 6 ounces tuna, with balsamic vinegar and 1 – 2 tablespoons Cap-Tri®• 1 large baked potato• Water, black coffee or unsweet-ened tea

Meal 4• Parrillo Hi-Protein Bar™

Meal 5• Skinless chicken breasts• Plenty of steamed fibrous vegeta-bles (broccoli, green beans, cauli-flower, summer squash, etc.) with 1 – 2 tablespoons CapTri®•

Parrillo Protein Ice Kreem™ – Frozen Protein Dessert or Parrillo Pudding™ (Protein Ice Kreem™ is easy to make, just add 4 scoops of mix and 2 cups of water to your Ice Cream Maker and follow the machine’s directions. In only 25-30 minutes your Ice Kreem™ is ready to enjoy!)• Water

Tuesday Undo Diet

Meal 1• 5 to 6 scrambled egg whites• Pancakes (Made with Parrillo Hi-Protein Pancake and Muffin Mix™)• Water or black coffee

Meal 2• 1 serving Parrillo Optimized Whey Protein Powder™

Meal 3• 2 cups mixed-greens salad with 6 ounces skinless chicken breasts, with balsamic vinegar and 1 – 2 tablespoons CapTri®• 1 large baked sweet potato or yam• Water, black coffee or unsweet-ened tea

Meal 4• Parrillo High Protein Bar™• Water, black coffee or unsweetenedtea

Meal 5• Baked salmon• Plenty of steamed fibrous vegetables (broccoli, green beans, cauliflower, summer squash, etc.) with 1 – 2 table-spoons CapTri®• Parrillo Pudding™• Water, black coffee or unsweetened tea

Bulletin #169 – Amino Power

Take your amino acids! A supplement – amino acids – that has been around for ages is getting a fresh look from science and the news for athletes and exercisers has never been better. Case in point: Investigators at the Col-lege of New Jersey studied the effect of a pre-exercise energy sport drink on the acute hormonal response to re-sistance exercise in eight experienced resistance-trained men. The subjects were randomly provided either a pla-cebo (a carb drink) or the supplement (a combination that included branched chain amino acids and creatine) and they drank it 10 minutes prior to exer-cising.

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The men then performed 6 sets of no more than 10 repetitions of the squat at 75 percent of their 1 repeti-tion maximum (1RM) with 2 minutes of rest between sets.The men who supplemented with the amino acid formula could do more repetitions and lift heavier weights than those on the carb-placebo drink. Equally impressive, the enhanced exercise performance resulted in a significantly greater increase in both growth hormone and insulin concen-trations, indicating an augmented anabolic hormone response from sup-plementing with the amino-acid for-mula. (1) There is more: amino acid supplementation works as a treatment for “cachexia,” the life-threatening muscle loss that occurs with cancer and other diseases that cause muscle- wasting. Nutritional supplementationwith amino acids has been shown to significantly improve blood sugar control and insulin sensitivity in poorly controlled elderly subjects with type 2 diabetes. And, amino acids are being studied in cardio-vascular diseases, which show it might improve well-being, en-hance physical function, and im-prove recovery from exercise.

(2)For years, Parrillo Performance has recommended that active peo-ple, from bodybuilders to endur-ance athletes to exercisers, sup-plement with amino acids. Here is an overview of what a solid amino acid supplement program should entail – and why: Incorporate BCAA’s Parrillo Performance provides an important mixture of amino acids – the branched chain aminos – in its Muscle Amino Formula™. The time to use this product is imme-diately before and after training as well as with meals. Hard dieting is a great time to supplement with branch chain amino acids. Dur-ing times of energy insufficiency (dieting), your body will actually break down its own muscle to use as fuel if no other is available. Catabolism is a dreadful meta-bolic state that occurs when gly-cogen stores have been depleted and fat oxidation has maximized. Metabolically, your body requires a certain level of glucose (blood sugar) to be maintained in order for the brain to function. While body fat provides a long-lasting energy supply, fat cannot be con-verted into carbohydrate by the human body. But protein (amino acids) can. Under adverse condi-tions, carbohydrates are exhausted and your body breaks down pro-tein stores (muscle tissue) to con-vert into carbohydrate to supply energy.

Branched chain amino acids are effective because they form a substrate for growth and are metabolized as fuel directly within muscle cells. A handful of Muscle Amino Formula™ cap-sules will help prevent the onset of catabolism and has both anabolic and anti-catabolic properties. Hi- Protein™ and Optimized Whey™ are fortified with extra BCAAs for just this reason. We suggest two or more with every meal. Rememberthat BCAAs require insulin for ab-sorption into muscle cells so take them with food or a protein and/orcarb drink rather than on an empty stomach!Don’t Forget Growth Hormone Releasing AminosCertain combinations of specific amino acids, such as those found in Enhanced GH Formula™, are shown to enhance GH release (8). Probably the best way to use these is on an empty stomach, first thing in the morning, right before a workout, and before bed. (MCTs, like CapTri®, can be a potent stimulus for GH release.)

Our supplement contains arginine pyroglutamate and lysine mono-hydrochloride, two potent amino acids, when isolated and grouped together and taken on a regular ba-sis have been shown to promote the secretion of growth hormone in the body. Growth hormone is the might-iest of all hormonal secretions as it increases mass and decreases body-fat simultaneously, and aids in joint repair!Arginine has a number of other im-portant functions in the body, includ-ing the fortification of the immune system. In studies with animals and humans, arginine has been found to improve wound healing and bolster immune responses, plus reduce the incidence of infection following sur-gery. Arginine has other duties, as well. It is required to manufacture creatine, an important chemical in the muscles that provides the energy for contractions. In addition, Argi-nine apparently helps prevent the body from breaking down protein in muscles and organs to repair itself when injured. Meat, poultry, and fish are good sources of arginine, as are numerous supplements, including our Enhanced GH Formula™ and our Ultimate Amino Formula™.

Glutamine & Ultimate Amino Formula™Glutamine is another important ami-no acid. It is the favored fuel of your immune system. This means you need it when you’re ill, stressed, or recovering from surgery. Researchers have discovered that many athletes are deficient in glutamine – a short-age that makes them vulnerable to infections. Glutamine is technically described as a “glucogenic,” mean-ing that it assists your body in manu-facturing glycogen, the chief muscle fuel. Also, supplemental glutamine has been shown to elevate growth hormone levels – and may even curb the desire for sugary foods.Each capsule in our Ultimate AminoFormula™ contains 103 milligrams of glutamine. We recommend that you take two or more capsules of this supplement with each meal. That should supply a gram or more daily – which is appropriate for athletes and active individuals. So – there are plenty of wonderful benefits to supplementing with amino acids, especially if you want to maximize performance, muscle development, and overall well-being.

References

1. Hoffman, J.R., et al. 2008. Effect of a pre-exercise energy supplement on the acute hormonal response to resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22:874-882.

2. Strasser, F. 2007. Appraisal of current and experimental approaches to the treatment of cachexia. Current Opinions in Supportive and Pallia-tive Care 1:312-316.

3. Isidori A, Lo Monaco A, Cappa M. 1981. A study of growth hormone release in man after oral administra-tion of amino acids. Current Medical Research and Opinion. 7: 475-481.

4. Valls E, Herrera F, Diaz M, Bar-reiro P, and Valls A. 1978. Modifica-tion in plasmatic insulin and growth hormone induced by medium chain triglycerides. Span. Ana. Ped. 11: 675-682.

Bulletin #168 – MCT Oil Really Is A Fat-Burning Fat!

I love it when research confirms what we at Parrillo Performance have known for decades. Yet another study has shown that MCT oil really is a fat-burning fat. Of course, you know MCT oil as CapTri®, one of our flag-ship supplements. MCT oil was first formulated in the 1950s by the phar-maceutical industry for patients who had trouble digesting regular fats. It is processed mainly from coconut oil but does not have any of the adverse effects associated with tropical oils.

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Here’s the latest, greatest news on MCTs: A 2008 study published in Journal of the American College of Nutrition found that substituting mod-erate amounts of MCT oil for other fats in a weight-loss program resulted in fat loss, including around the waist, with no adverse impact on cardiovas-cular risk factors.In the 16-week study, 31 overweight patients consumed either olive oil or MCT oil in muffins. All of the subjects participated in dietitian-led weekly group weight-loss counseling sessions that stressed following a prudent diet, and encouraged healthy eating pat-terns. The oils accounted for roughly 12 percent of participants’ calorie prescription.

At 16 weeks, the MCT group had lost significantly more weight: an average of 7 pounds, or 3.8 percent of their baseline body weight, compared with 1.7 percent in the olive oil group. That’s 200% better than the control group for all you math whiz-zes. That’s over twice the weight loss of the control group. The MCT group also had a 1.5 percent decrease in total fat mass as measured by CT scan, including a reduction in intra-abdominal fat. (1) Unlike conven-tional oils, MCT oil gets burned im-mediately by the liver before it even has a chance to get stored as body fat, and many researchers feel that it has a place in weight management. Of course, I agree!CapTri® is a unique high thermo-genic ultra pure MCT available exclusively from Parrillo Perfor-mance. CapTri® comes unflavored for cooking or making salad dress-ings, etc. or butter flavored for driz-zling over vegetables, fish, popcorn and more. CapTri® contains around 115 calories per tablespoon. I have very specific recommendations for how to use CapTri® in a weight-loss program, and it is Parrillo Perfor-mance’s own version of the low-carb diet (but without the side effects of typical low-carb diets).

The calo-ries from CapTri® provide the en-ergy you need to keep training hard, while you’re trying to lose body fat. Also, by substituting CapTri® for an equivalent number of calories from carbohydrates you avoid the slow-down in metabolic rate which inevi-tably results from calorie-restricted diets.My approach to low-carb dieting al-lows you to utilize the power of the low carb diet without resorting to using regular fat as a food source. Instead of regular fat, you use high thermogenic CapTri®, which be-haves more like a carbohydrate in the body, except that it doesn’t in-crease insulin levels. This means you can use CapTri® in place of carbs to decrease insulin levels and shift your metabolism into a fat-burning mode. This is very similar to the strategy of low-carbdiets except without relying on conventional fat as an energy source.To use CapTri® for fat loss, con-tinue to keep your protein intake high at about one to 1.5 grams per pound of body weight per day, then reduce carbohydrate intake and provide an equivalent number of calories from CapTri®.

For ex-ample, if you normally consume 300 grams of carbs per day (1200 calories worth), reduce that to 150 grams per day and add 5 table-spoons of CapTri® per day (pro-viding 570 calories). By reducing carbs and always combining your starches with protein, vegetables, and CapTri® at each meal, you will dramatically reduce insulin levels and maximize fat loss. One more point: Unlike conventional fats, CapTri® also works well dur-ing weight gain because it doesn’t contribute to fat stores (2, 3).Of course, CapTri® isn’t just for weight loss; it’s also for building and maintaining lean mass, since it has a positive effect on your me-tabolism. CapTri® is very thermo-genic and dramatically increases the rate of oxygen consumption after a meal. It’s no accident that we’ve incorporated CapTri® at the core of our supplement program. The reason? As you know, CapTri® is a very con-centrated source of calories – calories that can be used for energy and to support weight gain. The increase in oxygen consumption that occurs after you eat CapTri® means that it is be-ing burned very fast (4, 5).

Remember, foods are burned by reacting with the oxygen we breathe, so the reason oxy-gen consumption increases after you eat is to supply enough oxygen to burn the food to produce energy. Some of the energy from CapTri® is converted into body heat in a process known as thermogenesis (4, 5).This is the single most important rea-son why excess calories from CapTri® have less of a tendency to make you fat than excess calories from other foods. CapTri® is burned so fast that excess calories from it are turned into body heat instead of being converted into fat. This is why I’ve called CapTri® the best supplement ever developed for active people – it’s an excellent way tosupply extra calories but has very little tendency to make you fat. CapTri® is available exclusively from Parrillo Performance. You can use CapTri®: 1. To maintain energy levels while diet-ing. 2. To add clean calories for gain-ing muscle. 3. To replace regular fat with healthier CapTri®.

References

1. St. Onge, M.P. et al. 2008. Mediumchain triglyceride oil consumption as part of a weight loss diet does not lead to an adverse metabolic profile when compared to olive oil. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 27(5):547-552.2. Baba, N., Bracco, E.F., and Hashim, S.A. 198

2. Enhanced thermogenesis and diminished deposition of fat in response to overfeeding with diet containing medium chain triglycer-ide. American Journal of ClinicalNutrition 35: 678-682.

3. Bach, A.C. and Babayan, V.K. 1982. Medium chain triglycerides: an update. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36: 950-962.

4. Hill, J.O., et al. 1989. Thermogen-esis in humans during overfeeding with medium chain triglycerides. Metabolism 38: 641-648.5. Seaton, T.B., et al. 1986. Welle, Warenko and Campbell, Thermic effect of medium chain and long chain triglycerides in man. Ameri-can Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44: 630-634.

Bulletin #167 – Older Means Better

If you’re an older athlete – say over 50 – and want to stay competitive, do you have different nutritional needs than your younger counterparts? Most research to date suggests that your nutritional needs are not significantly different. However, there are definitely ways you can optimize your diet and supplement program to help you keep your edge. The following tips can help you stay competitive.The most important thing you can do is routinely eat quality calories from nutrient-dense, health-protective foods that support top performance, enhance recovery from hard workouts and reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer, osteoporosis, and other debili-tating diseases.

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The Parrillo Nutrition Program is designed to supply quality calories in amounts to keep you well-fueled. It consists of lean proteins, starchy carbs, and fibrous vegetables. Com-bine these at each meal and you’ll ob-tain an excellent nutritional base for performance and health. Consult your Parrillo Nutrition Manual for details on how to plan your diet. Recovery is the process of regeneration that takes place in the aftermath of a workout. To appreciate its importance, con-sider what happens inside your body as a consequence of intense exercise: Energy-giving glycogen stores are de-pleted; muscle protein is dismantled; microscopic tears in muscle fibers oc-cur; energy-producing compounds are lost from cells; and fluid and electro-lytes dwindle.Older athletes sometimes recover more slowly, so you’ll need to helpthe process along by supplying your body with all the nutritional building blocks it needs to restore what’s lost and repair what’s dam-aged. Of all the nutrients neces-sary for optimal recovery, dietary carbohydrate takes precedence for two reasons. First, carbohydrate restocks your body with muscle and liver glycogen, which can be depleted during exercise. Replen-ishing these stores allows you to train harder on successive work-outs for greater gains.

Second, carbohydrate reduces the need for muscle protein breakdown to pro-vide energy for resistance exercise, leading to a more favorable protein balance in the body. Carbohydrate also triggers the release of the hormone insulin, which promotes muscle growth as well. Various re-search studies have proven that a carbohydrate/protein supplement triggers the greatest elevations in insulin and growth-hormone levels in exercising study subjects. Clearly, protein works hand in hand with post-exercise carbs to create a hormonal environment that promotes the greatest increase in muscle growth. This nutrient combination also jumpstarts your body’s glycogen-making process — faster than if you just consumed carbs. Carbs produce a surge in in-sulin levels. Biochemically, insulin is like an accelerator pedal that races the body’s glycogen-mak-ing motor. Good recovery drinks include Parrillo Pro-Carb™, 50/50 Plus™, or Optimized Whey™.

As we get older, our protein needs in-crease slightly. Nutritionally, protein is the basic, most important building material in your body, essential to high-level health because of its role in growth and maintenance. Your body breaks down protein from food into nutri-ent fragments called amino acids and reshuffles them into new pro-tein to build and rebuild tissue, in-cluding body-firming muscle. Pro-tein also keeps your immune system functioning up to par, helps carry nutrients throughout the body, has a hand in forming hormones, and is involved in important enzyme reac-tions such as digestion. Proteins found in the Parrillo Nu-trition Program include fish, white meat poultry, egg whites, and our line of protein powders and bars. Although your bones have stopped growing, you can keep them strong with weight training and daily calci-um. Yes, you can get protective lev-els of calcium from natural foods, but it’s a good idea to hedge your bets and take a mineral supplement. Per pill, Parrillo Mineral-Electro-lyte™ contains 250 mg of calcium; 5 mg of iron; 250 mg of phospho-rus; 75 mcg of iodine in the form of kelp; 250 mg of magnesium; 11 mg of zinc; 50 mcg of selenium; 500 mcg of copper; 10 mg of man-ganese; 25 mcg of chromium picolinate; 45 mg of potassium; 500 mcg of boron; along with other nu-trients.

I recommend that you take one tablet with each meal during the day for optimum metabolism and well-being. Yes, your joints may get creaky and achy with age, but don’t despair. You can help them with some natu-ral approaches, and hopefully not have to resort to over-the-counter or prescription pain-killers (un-less your physician recommends them).One option available is evening primrose oil, in particular has spe-cific benefits for athletes, body-builders – really, anyone who is interested in improving personal health and fitness. It comes from a plant that grows wild along road-sides. It is so named because its yellow flowers resemble in color real primroses, and these flowers open only in the evening. From this oil, your body can directly obtain GLA, which stands for gamma-linolenic acid. GLA is ultimately converted into the prostaglandin E1 series, a group of beneficial chemicals that helps reduce in-flammation, regulates blood clot-ting, decreases cholesterol levels, and lowers high blood pressure, among other functions.A growing number of medical ex-perts and scientists now believe that taking GLA-rich oils can ef-fectively fight the inflammation – the major cause of swollen, painful joints.

GLA is a building block of a beneficial type of prostaglandin, which exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on the body. Thus, supple-menting with GLA increases production of these prostaglandins and may help control the pain and inflammation associated with joint problems and arthritis. Parrillo Performance recognized the need for a product that counter-acts joint and inflammation prob-lems. The Parrillo Performance solution is Evening Primrose Oil™ a concentrated source of essential fatty acids, including GLA. EFA’s keep joints lubricated, hair and skin healthy, and brain neurons firing correctly. Each 1000 mg gel cap contains 30 IU’s of vitamin E, 100 mg of Gamma Linolenic Acid and 760 mg of Linoleic Acid. Take one to three capsules daily. Our ongoing research recently led us to develop the Parrillo Joint For-mula™ to assist in the rebuilding of damaged joints, tendons, cartilage, and soft tissue.

This supplement contains glucosamine, a combina-tion of glucose and amino acids that has been extensively studied for joint health and support. When you supplement with glucosamine, it gathers in the liver, kidneys and ar-ticular cartilage. Once it reaches the chondrocytes, the cells that produce cartilage, the glucosamine is incor-porated into those cells. Eventually, it forms a viscous fluid that helps protect and lubricate your joints and cartilage. This formula also con-tains chrondroiton, which appears to stimulate cartilage cells to create new cartilage and it may also slow the breakdown of cartilage; shark cartilage, with its mucopolysaccha-rides that help relieve the chronic and painful inflammation that is so injurious to joints; and green sea mussel, a nutrient that supports the restoration and maintenance of sy-novial fluid and connective tissues.

The suggested usage is one or two tab-lets three times daily. For best results, use in conjunction with the Parrillo Performance Nutrition Program. Adequate fluid replacement is essen-tial for athletes of all ages. But the old-er you get, the less your thirst mecha-nism kicks in. In other words, you may need fluids but not feel thirsty. To reduce the risk of dehydration, drink at least 8 to 10 glasses of pure water every day. For the older athletes who are competing in highintensity endur-ance exercise, evidence for the useful-ness of carbohydrate-containing sports drinks, such as Parrillo Pro-Carb™, exists. Eat plenty of good calories, recover properly, protect your joints, and drink plenty of fluids – and you’ll enjoy feeling young as you keep your winning edge.

Reference

Rock, C.L. 1991. Nutrition of the old-er athlete. Clinics in Sports Medicine 10:445-457.

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