Liver Amino

Minerals may not be the most glamorous sports nutrition supplement, but they are very important and frequently ignored – particularly in the bodybuilding diet. The typical bodybuilding diet, for example, focuses on egg whites, oatmeal, chicken breast, rice, vegetables (sound familiar?) I knew one bodybuilder who ate nothing but tuna and brown rice (even for breakfast). I pleaded with him to take a mineral supplement, but he didn’t think it was important. Mineral supplements cost a few cents a day and can provide valuable insurance against some major problems you really don’t want, like osteoporosis and anemia.

Which brings us to this month’s topic: trace elements. These are the minerals required by the body in very small amounts. The body generally stores less than five grams of the trace minerals, so supplementation is helpful. This column will discuss three trace elements: iron, zinc, and chromium.

IRON

Iron is probably the most well studied of these, and also perhaps the one which is most commonly deficient. Most of the body’s iron is found in the red blood cells, where it is bound by hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein which transports oxygen from the lungs to working tissues. Without enough iron, you can’t make enough hemoglobin and then this reduces the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity. In this condition, known as iron deficiency anemia, exercise performance is severely limited.

The average man will have about 1,000 mg of stored iron, while women store only about 300 mg. Most men lose about one mg of iron a day; a menstruating woman loses about 1.4 mg. This is variable, however, and can be as high as 2.2 mg a day. Unfortunately, your intestines are not very efficient at absorbing iron. On average only about 10 percent of the iron you ingest is actually absorbed. For this reason the RDA for iron is 10 mg a day for adult males and 15 mg a day for adult non-pregnant females.

Dietary iron comes in two general forms, called heme iron and nonheme iron. Heme iron (found in meat and liver) is relatively well absorbed – about 23 percent. Only about three to eight percent of nonheme iron (found in vegetables) is absorbed.

The Parrillo Performance Mineral Electrolyte Formula™ provides five mg of iron per tablet in a special chelate form to enhance absorption. For the ultimate iron supplement, try Liver Amino Formula™, an ultra-purified liver preparation that supplies heme iron. Endurance athletes, women, and vegetarians are at greatest risk for iron deficiency and should consider this supplement. It has been specially prepared, with the fat and cholesterol removed, and it provides high-quality protein in addition to heme iron.

ZINC

Zinc is another important trace element. It is found in meat, seafood and poultry. Zinc is bound to many enzymes and is required for the optimum function of many diverse metabolic pathways. Zinc deficiency results in reduced growth rate, anorexia (appetite loss), and impaired wound healing. Several studies have shown that athletes are more prone to zinc deficiency than sedentary people (1-3). Among the various studies, about 23 percent of female runners were found to be zinc deficient. This seems to be a result of both increased zinc excretion in urine and sweat as well as decreased zinc intake. Although zinc is not normally thought to be a key mineral for exercise performance, it is required for an enzyme involved in anaerobic energy production, the energy pathways that power weight lifting. So while adding extra zinc probably won’t improve your lifting, a zinc deficiency could definitely hurt it.

CHROMIUM

Chromium is of special interest to athletes because it helps insulin act more effectively, and thus improves carbohydrate utilization. Some studies suggest it also has effects on lipid metabolism and perhaps lean body mass. The RDA for chromium has been set at 50 to 200 micrograms (mcg) a day. Most people consume between five and 150 mcg a day. Chromium deficiency is common, probably because it is depleted in refined foods. The best food sources for chromium are meats, whole grains, yeast, nuts, cheese and molasses. Urinary excretion of chromium is increased by exercise, so athletes probably have a higher chromium requirement (4).

Several studies have examined the role of chromium in weight training athletes (5,6). One group of beginning weight trainers were given 200 mcg of chromium per day for 40 days. The group increased lean body mass significantly more than the group given a placebo. Similar results were observed with football players. In another study, women receiving chromium achieved greater increases in lean body mass during a 12-week weight lifting program, but no difference was seen in men.

Some studies have also indicated that chromium might help fat metabolism as well.

The Parrillo Mineral Electrolyte Formula™ provides 25 mcg of chromium as chromium picolinate per tablet. Our vitamin and mineral supplements are designed to be taken one tablet with each meal. That will work out to be five or six tablets a day for most bodybuilders. This will supply 25 to 30 mg of iron each day, in addition to all of the other minerals included. This is enough to ensure adequate iron and chromium stores even in intensely training athletes, who lose more minerals daily and thus have higher requirements.

For best results, take one Parrillo Mineral Electrolyte Formula™ with each meal. This supplement is an excellent source of essential nutrients for metabolic functions. It’s a must for the hard-training athlete.

References

1. Dressendorfer RH and Sockolov R. Hypozincemia in runners. Phys. Sportsmed. 8(4):97 (1980).

2. Haralambie G. Serum zinc in athletes in training. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:135 (1981).

3. Singh A, Deuster PA and Moser PB. Zinc and copper status of women by physical activity and menstrual status. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 30:29 (1990).

4. Anderson RA, Plansky MM and Bryden NA. Strenuous running: acute effects on chromium, copper, zinc and selected clinical variables in urine and serum of male runners. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 6:327 (1984).

5. Evans GW. The effect of chromium picolinate on insulin controlled parameters in humans. Int. J. Biosocial Med. Res. 11:163 (1989).

6. Hasten DL, Rome EP, Franks BD and Hegsted M. Anabolic effects of chromium picolinate on beginning weight training students. Int. J. Sports Nutr. 2: 343 (1993).

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The remaining one percent of the body’s calcium is concentrated in the soft tissues where it plays an essential role in muscle contrac-tion, nerve transmission, blood coagulation, and the activity of  the heart.Although calcium is vital for bone health, it is being studied for other health benefits. For example, emerg-ing research hints that it may pro-mote normal insulin action. That’s important, since if insulin is out of whack, it can promote weight gain. Calcium has also been implicated in research showing a weight loss ef-fect. And for more than 20 years, scientists have known that ample calcium helps control and prevent high blood pressure – a silent killer you want to avoid.Magnesium: Magnesium is the maestro of more than 400 meta-bolic reactions in your body. Some examples: It helps orchestrate the protein-making machinery inside the cells of soft tissues; helps direct the metabolism of potassium, cal-cium, and vitamin D; is necessary for the release of energy; helps your muscles relax after contracting; and plays a central role in the secretion and action of insulin.

Bodily stores of magnesium are valuable in help-ing the body handle glucose and maintain proper blood levels for even energy levels throughout the day.A magnesium deficiency can makes the body’s cells less sensitive to in-sulin, and a severe magnesium de-ficiency can cause abnormalities in the function of the heart and is pos-sibly related to cardiovascular dis-ease, heart attack, and high blood pressure.How do you know if you’re mag-nesium-needy? In some cases, your doctor may order a test in which magnesium is administered intra-venously and urine is collected over a 24-hour period. The test is usually reserved for people at a known risk of magnesium deficien-cy, and these cases include patients with congestive heart failure, heart attack, ketoacidosis, alcohol abuse, potassium or calcium deficiency, and chronic use of certain drugs.Potassium: Potassium serves the body in many ways. It assists the nerves in sending messages, helps digestive enzymes do their work, ensures proper muscle function-ing (including that of the heart), regulates water balance, and re-leases energy from protein, car-bohydrates, and fats.

A potassium deficiency can lead to irregular heart beats, high blood pressure, muscular weakness, fatigue, kid-ney and lung problems, and insu-lin resistance. Zinc: Zinc is at the heart of many activities in your body. For ex-ample, it helps: absorb vitamins; break down carbohydrates; syn-thesize nucleic acid, which di-rects the manufacture of protein in cells; and regulate the growth and development of reproductive organs. Zinc is also a component of insulin, and it prevents defi-ciencies that can lead to problems in your body’s use of insulin. Zinc-poor diets are also associ-ated with cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, elevated tri-glycerides, and impaired glucose tolerance.Selenium: You can get powerful anticancer protection by stocking up on foods rich in selenium, an important antioxidant mineral. Such foods include fish, nuts, and whole grains. A huge body of evi-dence proves that diets low in sele-nium are a significant risk factor for cancers. In studying world popula-tions, scientists have discovered that people with low-selenium diets are more prone to have cancers of the breast, colon, liver, skin, and lung.

Over the years, several studies have suggested that selenium also helps reduce risk of prostate cancer, the second deadliest form of cancer in American men. Selenium works by protecting cells from damage. It may also block the action of carcinogens by interfering with their metabolism.Chromium Picolinate: Chromium is a trace mineral that helps turn carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar), the fuel burned by cells for energy. Chromium also helps regulate and produce the hormone insulin. Plenty of research over the years has found that chromium picolinate may improve body com-position and promote weight loss in healthy adults. It also may stimu-late the burning of carbohydrates so that they are converted into energy given off as heat, rather than being turned into body fat. Chromium is also believed to help stimulate the metabolism. Further, it appears to aid in protein synthesis. Assisted by chromium, insulin helps amino ac-ids gain access to cells, where they reassemble themselves to construct new muscle tissue.

Thus, chromium may have an indirect effect on mus-cle growth.Iodine: This mineral in our supple-ment comes in the form of kelp, a nutritious sea vegetable rich in io-dine. Iodine is a trace mineral that helps the thyroid gland produce thy-roxin, the principal thyroid hormone involved in metabolism.Supplementing With MineralsYes, you can get protective levels of these minerals from natural foods – including lean proteins, whole grains, and vegetables, but it’s a good idea to hedge your bets and take a mineral supplement. Per pill, Parrillo Min-eral-Electrolyte™ contains 250 mg of calcium; 5 mg of iron; 250 mg of phosphorus; 75 mcg of iodine in the form of kelp; 250 mg of magnesium; 11 mg of zinc; 50 mcg of selenium; 500 mcg of copper; 10 mg of man-ganese; 25 mcg of chromium pico-linate; 45 mg of potassium; 500 mcg of boron; along with other nutrients. I recommend that you take one tab-let with each meal during the day for improved metabolism and well-be-ing.

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These nutrients provide a life-sustaining environment for all body cells and must be kept in proper balance for optimum health .In addition to their electrolytic func-tions, these minerals play other vital roles in the body. Calcium, for example, is required for the formation of body struc-tures, particularly bones and teeth. It is the most abundant mineral in the body, with about 99 percent of this mineral de-posited in bones. It’s important to mention that dietary calcium is not well absorbed. In fact, only about 20 to 30 percent of the calcium you get from foods is taken up by your body, making mineral-electrolyte supplementation a good idea . Calcium requirements vary by age, but women and men generally need between 1000 and 1200 milligrams daily .The next most abundant mineral in the body is phosphorus. This mineral is essential for the formation of body struc-tures, muscular contractions, nerve trans-mission, and kidney function. Phosphorus also plays a key role in energy production. Both women and men need about 700 mil-ligrams daily for good health.Magnesium is required for the me-tabolism of protein and carbohydrates.

This mineral depends on the presence of calcium for its action. So when selecting a mineral-electrolyte supplement, make sure that the magnesium is equal to or at least 70 percent of the calcium. When taken in combination with the mineral zinc (30 milligrams) and vitamin B6 (10.5 milligrams), magnesium (450 milligrams) has been shown in research with college football players to boost strength levels. The normal daily recommendation for magnesium is 320 milligrams for women and 420 milligrams for men; for zinc, 8 milligrams for women and 11 milligrams for men.Another essential mineral is chloride . As an electrolyte, chloride helps maintain the pressure that causes fluids to pass in and out of cells until an equilibrium is reached on both sides of the cell mem-brane. There’s no daily recommendation for chloride, but it is advisable to obtain 500 milligrams daily .Potassium is required for nerve trans-mission, muscular contraction, and gly-cogen storage. It is also involved in the synthesis of protein.

Potassium works together with sodium to regulate fluid balance. Even though sodium has a bad reputation because of its link to high blood pressure and heart disease, some sodium is needed by the body for good health . There’s no recommended daily intake of potassium, although health ex-perts suggest 3500 milligrams for active adults .Right before competition, bodybuilders should be concerned about their sodium/potassium intake. Many competitors mis-takenly believe that they must completely eliminate sodium from their diet. Actu-ally, you need some sodium — between 500 milligrams and one gram a day — to look hard and full. This amount should be naturally present in the foods you eat during pre-contest dieting . The trick is to keep your sodium/potas-sium ratio in balance. By eating natural carbohydrates, you take in high amounts of potassium. If there is too little sodium in your system, your body accelerates its production of aldosterone, a hormone that regulates the vital sodium/potassium bal-ance. Inadequate concentrations of sodi-um can actually make you look smooth.Drinking unfamiliar water can upset this ratio.

That’s why you should be care-ful about the type of water you drink prior to your contest. Some city water supplies are high in sodium and calcium, which can both result in puffiness when taken in excess. For this reason, do not drink or cook with the water in the city where you are competing. Instead, take your own water with you to the contest — provided this water has not made you retain water in the past. If the water you drink does cause water retention problems, switch to distilled water for drinking and cooking. When drinking distilled water, however, be sure to take mineral-electrolyte supple-ments — because distilled water contains no minerals .Other minerals of vital importance to athletes and bodybuilders include sele-nium, which bolsters the immune system, plus protects cardiovascular and muscular health; iron, which is involved in the production of energy; and copper, which helps protect ligaments and tendons .

As for recommended intakes of these min-erals: The recommended daily intake of selenium is 55 micrograms for men and women. Although hard-working athletes may require more iron, the daily require-ment is 18 milligrams for women and 8 milligrams for men. You don’t need more than 3 milligrams of copper daily.Chromium, of course, is an important fat burner, shown in research to shift body composition toward a leaner, more muscu-lar profile. Chromium’s primary function in the body is to help turn carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar), the fuel burned by cells for energy. It also helps regulate and produce the hormone insulin . Manu-factured by the pancreas, insulin helps control hunger, regulates fat storage and muscle-building, and assists the body in utilizing cholesterol properly .

Chromium makes insulin work more efficiently in the body. Without chromium, insulin sim-ply would not function. For fat loss and muscle-growth support, the recommended intake of chromium is around 200 to 400 micrograms .As you can tell, there are many is-sues surrounding the intake of mineral-electrolytes, particularly for hard-training bodybuilders. You can obtain an excellent supply of these vital nutrients by supple-menting with Parrillo Mineral-Electro-lyte Formula. It supplies a balance of extracellular electrolytes and intracellular electrolytes . Other nutrients, such as zinc, magnesium, copper, selenium, and chro-mium, are present in readily assimilable forms. I suggest that you take one with each meal to ensure that you are getting ample amounts of these vital nutrients to help support essential body functions.

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This is referred to as “hitting the wall” by marathon runners, or “bonking” by cyclists. This is because fat cannot be metabolized rapidly enough to sustain maximum exercise performance. Stored body fat contains many thousands of calories, but those calories are relatively slowly metabolized. Body fat can sustain activities like walking nearly indefinitely, but does not supply energy fast enough to fuel running or intense cycling. Furthermore, fat is not an effective energy source for weight lifting. Weight lifting is probably the most intense exercise, requir-ing short bursts of maximal effort. Muscles must have carbohydrate to generate peak contractile force. Once muscle glycogen (carbohydrate) stores are depleted, weight lifting performance declines dramatically.Muscle glycogen is also important in obtaining a pump, and in having that round, full look you want your muscles to have. Before competition bodybuilders usually undergo a protocol called “carb loading,” to maximize muscle glycogen stores. This helps their muscles look bigger and fuller.

Endurance athletes also do this before a competition, not so much to make their mus-cles bigger, as to store as much “on board” energy as possible. Carb loading has been shown to improve endurance performance as well as increase muscle size and density. To perform carb loading, the athlete begins about six days or so before the competition by decreasing carbohydrate intake while continuing to train . This depletes stored muscle glycogen. After three days of gly-cogen depletion, the athlete increases carbo-hydrate intake beyond normal levels, while decreasing training activity. This causes the muscles to super-compensate, and store more glycogen than they normally would. After three days of loading, the muscles have reached their maximum storage capacity for glycogen. This gives bodybuilders big, hard muscles, and endurance athletes a topped off gas tank. Refer to the Parrillo Performance Nutrition Manual™ for detailed carb loading protocols, including directions on how much carbohydrate to consume when depleting and the loading .Pro-Carb™ is an ideal carbohydrate supplement for both bodybuilders and en-durance athletes.

To maximize daily training performance use two scoops of Pro-Carb™ about 20-30 minutes prior to training. If you engage in particularly long workouts, you might derive more benefit from increasing this to two scoops two or three times a day. Pro-Carb™ also works very well during carb loading. Here you generally would use one to two scoops three times a day, depending on your size and your carbohydrate intake from conventional food.Pro-Carb™ works very well for so called “hard gainers,” as a source of calories to support weight gain. Most people who have a hard time gaining weight simply don’t eat enough calories. Usually they feel full, and can’t eat enough food to put on any weight. These people are naturally thin, and often do well on a carbohydrate supplement. Of course, they also need to pay strict at-tention to protein intake, to ensure they are getting enough protein to support an increase in muscle mass .CapTri®CapTri® is another energy supple-ment, but is entirely different from Pro-Carb™. CapTri® is a medium-chain triglyc-eride (MCT) supplement - the most pure and highly refined on the market. MCT’s are a special kind of fat, which are metabolized very differently than conventional fats.

Conventional fats are combined with carrier proteins in the intestine to form particles called chylomicrons. The proteins help make the fatty acids more soluble, like the way detergent makes oil more soluble in water. The chylomicrons are then released into the lymphatic system, and enter the blood-stream via the thoracic duct. This results in conventional fats entering the bloodstream without first passing through the liver. Most of the fatty acids are then taken up by fat cells (adipocytes) for storage. When fat is consumed along with carbohydrate, the carbohydrate causes the pancreas to release insulin, which in turn stimulates fat cells to absorb fatty acids from the bloodstream and store them. Furthermore, carbohydrate metabolism generates an intermediate called malonyl-CoA which blocks the use of fat as energy. Conventional fats, but not CapTri®, require the action of the carnitine shuttle to transport them inside mitochondria, the structures inside cells where food molecules are burned to produce energy. Malonyl-CoA shuts down the carnitine shuttle, so as long as adequate carbohydrate energy is avail-able, little fat will be burned.CapTri® acts very differently in the body. It is not incorporated into chylo-microns and released into the lymphatic system. Instead, it enters the bloodstream directly from the intestines and is trans-ported to the liver by the portal vein, like carbohydrate is.

There, it is metabolized immediately to produce energy . The medium chain fatty acids are broken down to form ketone bodies, which are then released into the bloodstream and transported to muscles. There they are used immediately for energy. To summarize some of the most important differences between CapTri® and conven-tional fat: 1. Conventional fat bypasses the liver and goes directly to fat cells for storage. 2. CapTri® is broken down immediately in the liver and transported to muscles cells where it is used for energy. 3. CapTri® is not taken up and stored in fat cells, because it is metabolized in the liver. Therefore, CapTri® does not contribute to stored body fat, as does conventional fat. 4. CapTri® does not require the carnitine shuttle to be oxidized, therefore it is used as fuel at the same time as carbohydrate.That CapTri® can be used as fuel by muscle at the same time as carbohydrate has important implications for endurance athletes as well as bodybuilders.

This means it has a “carbohydrate-sparing” effect, help-ing muscle glycogen stores last longer before being exhausted. CapTri® is metabolized as a fuel source as rapidly as glucose (blood sugar), and at the same time as glucose, which is very different from conventional fats. This makes it an ideal energy source for bodybuilders and endurance athletes alike.CapTri® is a very efficient source of calories to help support weight gain, particularly lean mass. Adding CapTri® to your diet provides extra calories, supplying energy to support weight gain. However, since CapTri® is metabolized in the liver to produce energy, it does not contribute to body fat stores. CapTri® is not converted into muscle tissue, but it does spare the oxidation of amino acids and glucose, al-lowing these nutrients to be retained as muscle mass and glycogen, respectively. CapTri® is rather unique among caloric supplements in that it provides calories in a way that cannot be stored as body fat. To use CapTri® to support weight gain, add one-half to one tablespoon to each meal. CapTri® is an oil, and works well in salad dressings or on vegetables. Each tablespoon supplies 114 calories .Unlike carbohydrate, CapTri® also works well as a supplement to help with fat loss.

To use CapTri® to facilitate fat loss, use it in place of carbohydrate. For example, at each meal decrease carbohydrate content by 100 calories and replace this with 100 calo-ries of CapTri®. This will decrease insulin levels, promoting the use of stored body fat as energy. Many people trying to lose weight simply cut calories. This works for a while, but backfires in the end, because your body will slow down its metabolic rate to match the new, decreased, level of caloric intake. Using CapTri® will allow you to maintain energy levels and metabolic rate, but by pro-viding a nutrient array less prone to be stored as fat, and more prone to promote oxidation of stored body fat. Detailed instructions on the ways to use CapTri® are provided in the CapTri® User’s Manual, supplied with each bottle of CapTri®. Also, the Parrillo Performance Nutrition Manual explains this in more detail .Don’t take CapTri® by itself on an empty stomach, because it can cause cramps. It is best mixed with food or a drink. A combination of two scoops of Pro-Carb™ and one-half tablespoon CapTri® makes a very effective pre-workout drink. You may experience the highest workout energy levels ever. Increase your intake of Cap-Tri® slowly, allowing your stomach to get used to it. Start with one-half tablespoon mixed with food, and gradually increase by one-half tablespoon increments until you achieve the desired intake.

References

1. Baba N, Bracco EF, and Hashim SA . Enhanced thermogenesis and di-minished deposition of fat in response to overfeeding with diet containing medium chain triglyceride. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35: 678-682, 1982 .

2. Bach AC and Babayan VK. Me-dium chain triglycerides: an update. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36: 950-962, 1982.

3. Crozier G, Bois-Joyeux B, Chanez M, Girard J, and Peret J. Metabolic effects induced by long-term feeding of medium chain triglycerides in the rat. Metab. 36: 807-814, 1987 .

4. de Castro JM, Paullin SK, and DeLugas GM. Insulin and glucagon as determinants of body weight set point and microregulation in rats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 92: 571-579, 1978.

5 . Westphal SA, Gannon MC, and Nuttall FQ. Metabolic response to glucose ingested with various amounts of protein. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52: 267-272, 1990.

6. Geliebter A, Torbay N, Bracco EF, Hashim SA, and Van Itallie TB. Overfeed-ing with medium chain triglyceride diet results in diminished deposition of fat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 37: 1-4, 1983.

7. Seaton TB, Welle SL, Warenko MK, and Campbell RG. Thermic effect of medium-chain and long-chain triglycerides in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44: 630-634, 1986 .

8. Hill JO, Peters JC, Yang D, Sharp T, Kaler M, Abumrad N, and Greene HL. Thermogenesis in humans during over-feeding with medium chain triglycerides. Metab. 38: 641-648, 1989.

9 . Crozier . Medium chain triglyc-eride feeding over the long term: the metabolic fate of C-14 octanoate and C-14 oleate in isolated rat hepatocytes. J. Nutr. 118: 297-304, 1988 .

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As you know, most of the body’s iron is found in the red blood cells, where it is bound by hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein which transports oxygen from the lungs to working tissues. Without enough iron, you can’t make enough hemoglobin and then this reduces the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity. In this condition, known as iron deficiency anemia, exercise performance is severely limited. In addition to being found in red blood cells, iron is also found in muscle cells incorporated into a protein called myoglobin. This is an oxygen bind-ing protein that helps shuttle oxygen from the blood to the respiratory center of the cell-the mitochondria. Iron is also present inside the mitochondria as part of the cyto-chrome enzyme system, which is the mo-lecular machinery responsible for energy production. In essence, iron plays a vital role at every step of the energy producing pathway because of its ability to reversibly bind oxygen. Iron which is not being “put to work” in red blood cells, muscle cells or other cells is stored in the bone marrow.

The average man will have about 1,000 mg of stored iron., while women store only about 300 mg (1). Most men lose about one mg of iron a day, an menstruating women lose about 1.4 mg. This is variable, however, and can be as high as 2.2 mg a day (1). Unfortunately, your intestines are not very efficient at absorbing iron. On average only about 10 percent of the iron you ingest is actually absorbed. For this reason the RDA for iron is 10 mg a day for adult males and 15 mg a day for adult non-pregnant females. During pregnancy, an extra 30 to 60 mg each day is recommended . Dietary iron comes in two general forms, called heme iron and nonheme iron . Heme iron is an iron atom which is bound into a heme complex, a chemical constituent of the hemoglobin molecule found in red blood cells. As you might imagine, the best sources of heme iron are red meat and liver. Heme iron is relatively well absorbed-about 23 percent.

Only about three to eight percent of nonheme iron is absorbed. Thus, on average, iron absorption works out to be around 10 percent since most people get some mix of heme and nonheme iron in their diets . For some reason that is not clear, meat and vitamin C seem to improve the absorption of nonheme iron. It stands to reason that the people most likely to be iron deficient are vegetarians, since their diet is lower in total iron, plus lacks heme iron altogether. Female vegetarians would be especially at risk. If you eat less iron than your body loses on a daily basis, over time this will deplete the iron reserves in your bone marrow and you will develop iron deficiency. Your body can cope fairly well with this until the iron stores are severely depleted, and then the bone marrow can’t make enough hemoglobin anymore. Iron deficiency anemia results. In the United States about 10 percent of women are iron deficient and about six percent are so low on iron that they develop iron deficiency anemia. Less than one percent of adult American men are iron deficient.

The higher frequency of iron deficiency in women usually attributed to menstrual blood loss, and no doubt that does explain their greater (average) daily iron loss. However, it is interesting to note that about 50 percent of women consume less than 10 mg of iron each day. So women seem to have more of a problem with iron deficiency for a combination of two reasons: greater iron loss and lower iron consumption . It is clear that iron deficiency anemia reduces exercise performance (2-4). When hemoglobin concentrations are too low the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is reduced. This will obviously compromise energy production. When iron deficiency anemia is corrected exercise performance improves. Some evidence suggests that milder iron deficiency, without anemia, may also compromise exercise perfor-mance. For example, when athletes who have borderline anemia (hemoglobin levels near the lower limit of the normal range) are given supplemental iron their heart rate during exercise decreases (5). What does that mean? Well, if your blood cannot carry as much oxygen as it normally should, you can compensate at least partially by pump-ing a larger volume of blood per minute. This is why anemic people have a faster heart rate.

Their hearts are pumping faster to try to keep up with the oxygen demands of the tissues. Also, blood lactate levels are higher in iron deficient athletes following exercise, and the lactate is reduced follow-ing correction of the iron deficiency (1). This indicates that the body is forced to rely more on anaerobic energy producing sys-tems to fuel exercise if it is iron deficient. It seems logical that this would be the case if oxygen delivery was compromised. The Parrillo Performance Mineral Elec-trolyte Formula™ provides five mg of iron per tablet in a special chelate form to enhance absorption. For the ultimate iron supplement, try Liver Amino Formula™, an ultra-purified liver preparation that supplies heme iron. Endurance athletes, women and vegetarians are at greatest risk for iron defi-ciency and should consider this supplement . It has been specially prepared and fat and cholesterol removed, and it provides high quality protein in addition to heme iron.

Zinc is another important trace element . It is found in meat, seafood and poultry (1). Zinc is bound to many enzymes and is required for the optimum function of many diverse metabolic pathways. Zinc deficiency results in reduced growth rate, anorexia (appetite loss) and impaired would healing (1). Several studies have shown that athletes are more prone to zinc deficiency than sedentary people (6-8). Among the various studies, about 23 percent of female runners were found to be zinc deficient. This seems to be a result of both increased zinc excretion in urine and sweat as well as decreased zinc intake. Although zinc is not normally thought to be a key mineral for exercise performance, it is required for the activity of lactate dehydrogenase. This is the enzyme that converts pyruvate to lactate and is required for anaerobic energy production, the energy pathways that power weight lifting. So while adding extra zinc probably won’t improve your lifting, a zinc deficiency could definitely hurt it. Chromium is of special interest to athletes because it helps insulin act more effectively, and thus improves carbohydrate utilization. Some studies suggest it also has effects on lipid metabolism and perhaps lean body mass. The RDA for chromium has been set at 50 to 200 micrograms (mcg) a day.

Most people consume between five and 150 mcg a day. Chromium deficiency is common, probably because it is depleted in refined foods (1). The best food sources for chro-mium are meats, whole grains, yeast, nuts, cheese and molasses (1). Urinary excretion of chromium is increased by exercise, so athletes probably have a higher chromium requirement (9). Several studies have examined the role of chromium in weight training athletes (10,11). One group of beginning weight trainers were given 200 mcg of chromium per day for 40 days. The group increased lean body mass signifi-cantly more than the group given a placebo. Similar results were observed with football players. In another study, women receiving chromium achieved greater increases in lean body mass during a 12-week weight lifting program, but no difference was seen in men. Some studies have also indicated that chromium might help fat metabolism as well. Other trials have not been able to demon-strate any significant effect of chromium on muscle or fat metabolism.

Why do different scientific reports sometimes contradict each other? The most likely explanation is that chromium probably does have some effect, and if you are chromium deficient energy metabolism may not proceed with optimal efficiency. However, if you already have adequate chromium stores, taking extra may not make any further difference. This seems to be the case with a lot of issues relating to vitamins and minerals. If you are deficient in a vitamin or mineral big prob-lems will develop. But if you have normal levels then taking extra doesn’t confer any additional benefit. I suspect this is the case with chromium. We can see an effect of chromium supplementation if the subjects in the study started off with chromium de-ficiencies. But if the study participants be-gan the trial with replete chromium stores, then chromium supplementation might not do anything. Since several studies have demonstrated a significant effect on lean body mass from chromium supplementa-tion, it is not unreasonable to suggest that serious athletes consider trying chromium for a month or two to see if it works for them. As is the case with many nutritional supplements, you could go to the doctor to get your chromium level checked but it’s cheaper just to try the supplement than to get the blood test. You may be one of the people for whom it works.

One exception to this idea that enough is good but more may not be better is the anioxidants. The body’s requirements for vitamins C and E to prevent deficiency status are quite low. However, for C and E to function effectively as antioxidants you have to take quite a bit more than the minimum amount required to prevent an overt vitamin deficiency. Similar effects seem to be seen with vanadyl in promoting glycogen storage, but I haven’t hound this to be true for chromium. The Parrillo Meneral-Electrolyte For-mula™ provides 25 mcg of chromium as chromium picolinate per tablet. Our vitamin and mineral supplements are designed to be taken one tablet with each meal. That will work out to be five or six tablets a day for most bodybuilders. This will supply 25 to 30 mg of iron each day, in addition to all of the other minerals included .

This is enough to ensure adequate iron and chromium stores even in intensely training atheltes, who lose more minerals daily and thus have higher requirements. In closing, I would like to say a few more words about calcium. Although it is not a trace mineral. One of the most worrisome nutritional practices I see in bodybuilding is the avoidance of dairy products without adequate regard to eating enough green leafy vegetables or calcium supplementa-tion. Most women increase bone density until age 30 or so, and then by age 35 bone mineral density begins to decline. The rapid decline which occurs after menopause can result in osteoporosis. One of the most important things you can do to prevent osteoporosis when you’re old is to build strong bones while you’re young. If you come out of middle age with relatively poor calcium status, that makes it all the more likely you’ll have problems when you’re older. Women especially (but men as well) should make sure that they get enough cal-cium from some source while they’re still young and increasing bone mineral density. You should consume 1,200 mg of calcium per day.

This is difficult to do even if you do use dairy products, and it is very hard if you don’t. We all know that most bodybuilders use relatively little dairy. So it becomes very important to supplement calcium to make sure you get enough . Sometimes it’s hard to talk athletes into doing this because cal-cium supplements don’t have any effect on exercise performance or on your physique. But, if you don’t use dairy products please be conscientious about taking a calcium supplement. Our Mineral Electrolyte™ provides 250 mg of calcium in each tablet. Four tablets a day is probably enough when combined with the calcium from your diet. Five tablets each day would guarantee that you meet your requirement. Plus Parrillo Hi-Protein Powder™ contains 280 mg of calcium per serving; Parrillo Optimized Whey Protein™contains 130 mg of calcium per serving; and the Parrillo 50/50 Plus™ contains 250 mg per serving for the vanilla, chocolate and orange cream flavors and 300 mg per serving for the milk flavor, which tastes just like whole milk minus the sugar and fat.

References

1. Haymes EM. Trace minerals and exer-cise. Chapter 11 in Nutrition in Exercise and Sport, Wolinsky and Hickson, editors. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1994.

2 . Celsing F, Blomstrand E, Werner B, Pihlstedt P and Edblom B. Effects of iron deficiency on endurance and muscle enzyme activity in man. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 18:156 (1986).

3. Edgerton VR, Ohira Y, Hettiarachchi J, Senewiratne B, Garner GW and Barnard RJ. Elevation of hemoglobin and work tolerance in iron deficient subjects. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitam. 27:77 (1981).

4. Gardner GW, Edgerton VR, Senewiratne B, Barnard RJ and Ohira Y. Physical work capacity and metabolic stress in subjects with iron deficiency anemia. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 30:910 (1977).

5. Ohira Y, Edgerton VR, Gardner GW, Gu-nawardena KA, Senewiratne B and Ikawa S. Work capacity after iron treatment as a function of hemoglobin and iron deficiency. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitam. 27:87 (1981).

6. Dressendorfer RH and Sockolov R. Hy-pozincemia in runners. Phys. Sportsmed. 8(4):97 (1980).

7. Haralambie G. Serum zinc in athltes in training. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:135 (1981).

8. Singh A, Deuster PA and Moser PB. Zinc and copper status of women by physical activity and menstrual status. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 30:29 (1990).

9. Anderson RA, Plansky MM and Bryden NA. Strenuous running: acute effects on chromium, copper, zinc and selected clini-cal variables in urine and serum of male runners. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 6:327 (1984).

10. Evans GW. The effect of chromium picolinate on insulin controlled parameters in humans. Int. J. Biosocial Med. Res. 11:163 (1989).

11. Hasten DL, Rome EP, Franks BD and Hegsted M. Anabolic effects of chromium picolinate on beginning weight training stu-dents. Int. J. Sports Nutr. 2: 343 (1993).